1. The Evidence CD reissues of several essential Sun Ra recordings.

2. Robert L. Campbell's discography The Earthly Recordings of Sun Ra.

3. The release on video of the film Space Is the Place.

4. The ongoing discussions on the Sun Ra listserv discussion group.

5. The publication of John F. Szwed's definitive account of Sun Ra's life, Space Is the Place: The Life and Times of Sun Ra.

6. The discovery and distribution of the Sun Ra scores from the Library of Congress.  (For details, see the Sun Ra discussion group).

---DAM (1999)

The Cosmic-Myth Equations of Sun Ra

by

David A. Martinelli

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Sun Ra's Background, Overview of Stylistic Traits, and Important Arkestra Members

Chapter 3: The Cosmic-Myth Equations of Sun Ra

Chapter 4: Musical Manifestations of Sun Ra's Equations

Conclusion

Appendix: Discography

References Cited

Chapter 1: Introduction

    Sun Ra is a composer, bandleader, and multi-keyboardist who has led his own big band, called the Arkestra, for nearly 35 years. Sun Ra is of African-American descent, born in Alabama, and has since lived in Chicago and New York, and is currently based in Philadelphia. Sun Ra and the Arkestra have released over one hundred records, both on small and medium-sized jazz labels as well as on Sun Ra's own label, Saturn. The music they play covers a very wide spectrum, but they are mainly associated with the jazz or improvised music idiom. Sun Ra has developed a complex, multi-leveled philosophy¹, which incorporates many different elements (for example, ancient Egyptian concepts and outer space imagery), yet when looked on as a whole reveals an underlying unity of purpose.

    The purpose of this study is to look into this philosophy and to see how it has influenced specific musical elements. The bulk of this study will consist of an investigation of Sun Ra's beliefs. The main sources will be a number of interviews he has given in the past, and these will be amplified by his poetry and certain works by other authors dealing with similar or related topics. This analysis will look at the various themes that run through his philosophy and will show how these themes are interrelated. The next section will show how some of these themes are manifested in specific musical phenomena. It is not the purpose of this study to link every theme with a specific musical trait; rather, the focus will be on the important, general themes. The musical elements to be investigated are song titles, lyrics, records, instruments, repertoire, performance practices, and specific pieces. Through this analysis I hope to show that underlying the vast scope of philosophical concepts and musical elements is a consistent unity of purpose.

    There are several precedents in the ethnomusicological literature for this type of study. Most focus on how particular cultural attitudes or world-views are manifested in musical forms. This type of study finds it most extreme expression in Alan Lomax's Cantometrics, where individual cultural attitudes, along with other determining factors, have one-to-one correspondences with particular musical traits, and that furthermore these are applicable on a world-wide basis (Lomax 1976). Others since then have focused on less all-encompassing goals. Steven Feld, for example, has shown how specific Kaluli metaphors concerning nature and sound are expressed in their music (Feld 1984). A similar approach was taken by Marina Roseman in her study of the Temiar of Malaysia (Roseman 1984). Both Feld and Roseman viewed this type of study as a basis for cross-cultural comparison. A similar approach was taken by Judith and Alton Becker, who showed how Javanese conceptions of time manifested themselves in a cyclic musical form (Becker and Becker 1981). Paul Humphreys' study of Pueblo cosmology and its relation to music falls along similar lines (Humphreys 1989), while Jane Sugarman's study of Prespa Albanians shows how conceptions of gender roles are manifested in musical performances (Sugarman 1989).

    All of the above studies are concerned with cultural conceptions. Tim Rice has written that the role of individual creativity and experience in cultural expressions of music is an important area of focus that has often been overlooked (Rice 1987). Two studies that look into individual conceptions of music are James Porter's investigation of the role epistemics (individual conceptions concerning a piece of music) plays in musical change (Porter 1988), while Colin Quigley's dissertation on fiddler Emile Benoit seeks to show how the values held by a particular musician relate to musical creativity and composition (Quigley 1987).

    This study is different from the ones cited above in that it seeks to examine a unique and comprehensive philosophy of life and existence that is held by a musician who, though concerned with his own people, feels himself as apart from humanity. This philosophy will then be related not just to musical sounds or forms, but to many other musical aspects. In fact, musical analysis will comprise only a small portion of this study.

    This study will organize and clarify some of Sun Ra's concepts, and try to demonstrate how they express a unity of purpose. This does not mean that there will be an explanation for everything, or that this interpretation is the only reasonable one. At times this study may resemble the "open text" described by Clifford, subject to many reinterpretations (Clifford 1988: 46). Though Sun Ra's statements can be taken as "objective data", the inter-pretation of these may at times appear overly subjective. However, Chernoff has written that "Ethnomusicologists must recognize and go beyond the limitations of what has previously been considered objective social data" (Chernoff 1989: 73), and I believe all my interpretations are relevant to the topic at hand.

    One thing this study will not attempt to do is to see Sun Ra as some type of personification of particular socio-cultural conditions or constraints. This study will not be concerned with social science. The focus of this study will be on the creative art form of music and the views expressed by one of its most unique creators.

    There is a great deal of literature available on Sun Ra and his music. Although there currently is no biography, autobiography, or critical study of Sun Ra in existence, a number of books dealing with jazz and modern improvised music contain information on Sun Ra. Valerie Wilmer's As Serious As Your Life and John Litweiler's The Freedom Principle both have sections dealing with aspects of Sun Ra and his music. While both contain biographical information, Wilmer focuses more on Sun Ra's beliefs and the social situation of his group while Litweiler is centered more on musical analysis or interpretation. Ekkehard Jost's Free Jazz also contains a chapter on Sun Ra, focusing primarily on methods of analyzing Sun Ra's music from the 1950s to 1970s. LeRoi Jones' Black Music and Graham Lock's Forces in Motion both interpret Sun Ra in a wider sociocultural context. Jones, writing in the sixties, analyzes Sun Ra's relationship to the wider area of African-American musical aesthetics, as does Lock, who in addition offers some suggestions regarding the sources of certain aspects of Sun Ra's beliefs. Both also recognize the importance of Sun Ra's spiritual beliefs and proclamations. (Lock's book deals primarily with composer, performer, and conceptualist Anthony Braxton; it is subtitled The Music and Thoughts of Anthony Braxton. Lock's chapters on Sun Ra serve as a prelude to the main topic of his book). In addition, Barry McRae has written an essay on Sun Ra that has appeared in Jazz Journal consisting primarily of biographical information and stylistic analysis. Frank Kofsky's Black Nationalism and the Revolution in Music deals primarily with African-American political movements of the 1960s and how they influenced the music of such artists as John Coltrane, Archie Shepp, and Cecil Taylor. Kofsky also deals at length with critical reactions to this new music and its attendant political stance. Another important source of information on Sun Ra is C. O. Simpkins' Coltrane: A Biography. Although Simpkins deals briefly with Sun Ra's association with John Coltrane, he includes in his book a reproduction of one of Sun Ra's "Solaristic Precepts", a document that sheds much light on certain aspects of Sun Ra's beliefs.

Record (or CD) liner notes can sometimes include critical essays that contain important information or perspectives on the artists or performers involved. For this study, the following liner notes have been used as sources:

Joachim E. Berendt: It's After the End of the World

Dario Salvatori: New Steps

Victor Schonfield: Pictures of Infinity

W. Royal Stokes: Hours After.

Stokes and Schonfield are mainly useful because they include quotes from Sun Ra, while Berendt and Salvatori are more theoretical essays dealing with aspects of Sun Ra's aesthetics and performance practices.

    There is also an hour-long documentary film on Sun Ra and the Arkestra by Robert Mugge called A Joyful Noise. This film contains performance footage and interviews with Sun Ra and Arkestra members John Gilmore, James Jackson, Danny Thompson, and Elo Omoe. It also includes rehearsal footage, a glimpse of the Arkestra's communal home, and one scene in Pharoah's Den, a local store run by Danny Thompson.

    Sun Ra's poetry often amplifies or expands upon the philosophical statements made in interviews. His poems can be found on record jackets, and have also been published in a collection called The Immeasurable Equation. For this study I will use two versions of The Immeasurable Equation, both with the same date and publishing information but with different contents. There is also a pamphlet entitled Sun Ra that contains extracts from interviews, some of which are the same as the ones cited above and some which are not (none of the extracts in this pamphlet have citations). This pamphlet and one of the versions of The Immeasurable Equation were obtained at a Sun Ra performance.

    Sometimes interviews with Sun Ra's musicians can provide various kinds of helpful information. Tam Fiofori has written a series of brief profiles of long-time Arkestra members Marshall Allen and Pat Patrick. There are also two longer interviews with John Gilmore by John Diliberto and Valerie Wilmer.

    There are a number of sources that I will use in analyzing some of the possible roots of Sun Ra's beliefs. As stated in my methodology, this list is necessarily selective in that it would require considerable amounts of time and research to become fully acquainted with the number of ideas that Sun Ra has been influenced or inspired by in his lifetime. However, I believe that each of these sources is relevant to this topic, either as a possible influence on Sun Ra, or in helping to elaborate some of his ideas.

    Since the literature on ancient Egyptian civilization and beliefs is vast, I will rely on two representative works by E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Book of the Dead and Gods of the Egyptians, Volume 1, that focus on some of the more basic aspects of Egyptian beliefs. I will also rely on George G. M. James' Stolen Legacy, a pioneering work linking Greek philosophy to ancient Egyptian beliefs, and a book which is also mentioned by Lock (1988: 20-21fn) as a possible direct influence on Sun Ra. Another extremely helpful work is Manly P. Hall's The Secret Teachings of All Ages, which is subtitled An Encyclopedic Outline of Masonic, Hermetic, Qabbalistic, and Rosicrucian Symbolical Philosophy, Being an Interpretation of the Secret Teachings Concealed within the Rituals, Allegories, and Mysteries of All Ages. The title accurately sums up the nature of this work. For this study, I will mainly use Hall's chapters on the Pyramids, the Sun, Pythagorean theories of music, and aspects of Christianity. Unfortunately, time and space constraints preclude an analysis of Sun Ra's beliefs as compared to Rosicrucian, Alchemical, Qabbalistic, and Masonic teachings.

    Another figure whose works will be used to shed light on aspects of Sun Ra's beliefs is the Honorable Elijah Muhammad, founder of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad has written on a number of topics that are relevant to the study of Sun Ra. Muhammad's books Message to the Blackman in America and The Fall of America both address a variety of topics, while The Flag of Islam explains the symbolism of the Nation of Islam's flag.

    Further sources that are of help in interpreting various aspects of Sun Ra's beliefs are Mustafa El-Amin's Al-Islam, Christianity, and Freemasonry and Freemasonry, Ancient Egypt, and the Islamic Destiny and Carl Jung's Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Sky. Finally, scriptural perspectives will be provided by the Holy Bible, King James Version, and the Holy Qur'an, the version translated and annotated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, which in addition to commentary and footnotes also has a number of Appendices on topics relevant to this study.

    Sun Ra's biographical background is somewhat difficult to put together. Some of the information presented here is more a result of consensus opinions than absolute fact. The following account has been compiled from most of the interviews and essays on Sun Ra used for this study. The best basic biographical sketch, however, can be found in Wilmer 1977: 75, 81-92.  Sun Ra's exact date of birth is unknown. The year of his birth has been estimated to be as early as 1910 and as late as 1928, but the consensus among most writers is somewhere around 1914 or 1915. The month and day are unknown, but his astrological sign is Gemini. Sun Ra was born (his term is "arrived") in Birmingham, Alabama, and his given name was Herman Blount. (This is another consensus opinion. Sun Ra has denied that his name was Blount--see Chapter 3). His first instrument was a kazoo or blowing through a comb, which he did at around age six (Rusch 1984: 64). He also learned music from a friend of the family named William Gray, who was a violinist, and by borrowing his sister's music books (she was taking piano lessons). Sun Ra was able to read music without any training (Lyons 1978: 16); however, he later acquired more formal music training. At this time, he was listening to his parents' records, which included such artists as Fletcher Henderson, Bessie Smith, and Duke Ellington. In high school, he was a member of several bands, including one led by Fess Whatley, and he also led his own bands. Some of these bands went on tours, and performed in areas such as Chicago, the East Coast, and the South.

    He continued his education at Alabama A & M, a black college, where he majored in music education and teacher's training. He left the South in the late 1930s, spending time in Gary, Indiana and in Washington D. C., where he had private music instruction from Willa (or Lula) Randolph. At the end of the 1930s, he moved to Chicago, where he began his professional career and which was his base of operations for a long period of time.

    In Chicago he played in a wide variety of blues, rhythm and blues, entertainment, and jazz bands. He also spent a period of time prior to 1946 in Nashville, performing with rhythm and blues artist Wynonie Harris. In 1946 he began one of his most important musical associations: arranging and playing piano for the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra at the Club deLisa. This lasted for a year. Although some of the musicians had difficulty with his arrangements, Henderson always supported him. This engagement was very influential in determining Sun Ra's later musical standards, such as discipline and orchestration, and he has always cited Fletcher Henderson as one of the true creators in the world of jazz.

    In 1948, he performed informally with a trio consisting of Coleman Hawkins and violinist Stuff Smith. In this year he also made his recording debut with Eugene Wright and His Dukes of Swing, with a group that also included Yusef Lateef. Other activities in Chicago included playing with the Red Saunders band at the Club deLisa, and engagements at the Grand Terrace Club. In the early 1950s he led a nationalist group and began printing and distributing his own pamphlets.

    In 1953 he was leading a trio with bassist Richard Evans and drummer Robert Barry at Shepps Playhouse and backing up a variety of different performers at the Club deLisa. Sun Ra's trio was joined by tenor saxophonist John Gilmore, who has played with Sun Ra almost continuously ever since. By the mid-1950s, this band had expanded into an eight-piece, which became known as the Myth-Science Arkestra, and they began playing in Chicago's Birdland and at the Roberts Lounge. In 1956 this band made its first recording for Transition Records, called Jazz by Sun Ra Vol. 1. (Jazz by Sun Ra Vol. 2 was recorded, but Transition soon went out of business. These two records were re-released by Delmark Records as Sun Song and Sound of Joy, respectively). At this time Sun Ra was also involved in recording his own music, and started his own label, Saturn Records. Since then he has recorded for both Saturn and a number of other record companies. Also in the late 1950s, Sun Ra and the Arkestra appeared in a film called The Cry of Jazz.

    In 1961 the band left Chicago and went to work in Montreal. After this, the band moved to New York, which became its second major base of operations. Their first major engagement was at the Playhouse in Greenwich Village, where at one time a young Pharoah Sanders temporarily replaced Gilmore. Sun Ra also joined the Jazz Composers' Guild in the early sixties, which was a musicians' self-help and self-promotional group that also included Archie Shepp, Cecil Taylor, Bill Dixon, and Paul Bley. In 1964, Sun Ra and the Arkestra performed at the October Revolution in Jazz, which was a landmark series of concerts organized by Bill Dixon that showcased many new performers of the New Music (aka Avant-Garde or Free Jazz) as well as being an example of a self-run, self-promoted event. However, Sun Ra left the Jazz Composer's Guild soon after this.

    In 1966, the band began its legendary Monday night engagement at Slug's . This lasted until 1972. In the late sixties, the band moved its base of operations to Philadelphia, where it has remained ever since. In 1971 the band performed in Egypt for the first time, and also during this period Sun Ra was an artist-in-residence at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1978 Sun Ra and the Arkestra made their first nationwide television appearance in the United States on NBC's Saturday Night Live. Ever since the early 1970s, Sun Ra and the Arkestra have maintained a fairly consistent touring and recording schedule, including many appearances in Europe at a variety of jazz festivals. As of this writing, Sun Ra and the Arkestra continue to tour and perform regularly in spite of a stroke that Sun Ra suffered in 1989.

    When speaking of the stylistic development of Sun Ra's music, it is important to remember that Sun Ra and the Arkestra have always played a wide variety of music at any given time in their career. It is possible, however, to outline certain stylistic trends or emphases in certain periods of their career. Caution must be taken in making any assumptions, however, due to the lack of availability of most of Sun Ra's recordings and the inconsistent standards of documentation of those that are available.

    Sun Ra's music of the 1950s presents a unique big-band conception. In his earliest recordings, Sun Ra employed such innovations as the use of electric keyboards, electric bass, two baritone saxophones, and tympani. His first electric keyboards were the Hammond organ and Wurlitzer electric piano; in subsequent years Sun Ra has used a huge variety of electric keyboard instruments. The music of this period is characterized by catchy, unique themes, pieces based both on chord changes (including several blues) and modes, and the incorporation of tympani solos. The horn and piano solos are for the most part in a conventional bop style. Exceptions to this are the unconventional mood pieces such as "Sun Song", which features a continuous bass and tympani ostinato and an organ improvisation by Sun Ra that is more concerned with sounds and textures than melodic development.

    In the late 1950s and early 1960s, percussion began to play a more important role in Sun Ra's music. Many of the pieces on The Nubians of Plutonia (1959) contain long, multiple-percussion solos. Percussion also plays an important role in the piece "The Beginning" from The Futuristic Sounds of Sun Ra (1961). This latter record also features another innovation: simultaneous horn solos that move away from tonal bases.

    In the early 1960s Sun Ra's music began to move farther away from any previous style of big band music. Atlantis features one of Sun Ra's earliest and longest unaccompanied organ improvisations, which deals mainly with moods, sounds, and textures. The recording The Magic City, from 1961, contains several pieces that are completely athematic and deal entirely with textures and different kind of sound combinations. This direction was continued on the 1965 recordings called The Heliocentric Worlds of Sun Ra, Vols. 1 and 2. In this period all of the musicians began to explore the complete range of sound possibilities on their instruments (or voices). Outstanding in this regard is the reed work of John Gilmore, Marshall Allen, Pat Patrick, and Danny Davis, the bass work of Ronnie Boykins, and the various keyboard explorations by Sun Ra. Other recordings from this period, such as Bad and Beautiful and Art Forms of Dimensions Tomorrow recall the earlier 1950s sound of the band.

    In the late 1960s Sun Ra and the Arkestra entered what is called their "Intergalactic" phase. Performances in this period incorporated dancers, films, and light shows. Sun Ra began using a Moog synthesizer, which became an important sound element of the Arkestra. Some of Sun Ra's best synthesizer playing can be heard on the live recordings It's After the End of the World and Live in Paris 1970 and on the studio recordings called The Solar-Myth Approach Vols. 1 and 2. These latter recordings are among the best in Sun Ra's career, and each contains a wide variety of music, from the innovative forms and orchestrations of "Legend", "Spectrum", and "Strange Worlds" to the short, folk-like pieces such as "Outer Spaceways Incorporated" and "Pyramids".

    Sun Ra's music of the early and mid-1970s continued in this vein. In 1972, another important recording was released, called Space is the Place. The title piece from this record has become Sun Ra's theme song, and can be heard at nearly every performance, usually as part of a medley. This record contains the original version, which is over twenty minutes long.

    In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Sun Ra began what some have called his "revivalist" phase, incorporating many songs by earlier jazz artists into the Arkestra's repertoire. Some of these include Billy Strayhorn's "Take the 'A' Train", Jelly Roll Morton's "King Porter Stomp", and Horace Henderson's (Fletcher's brother) "Yeah Man!" Also included were a number of popular standards such as "Over the Rainbow", "Cocktails for Two", and "Yesterdays". Currently, Sun Ra's recordings and performances can draw on any or all of the above-mentioned styles, and surprises are always possible, such as when in 1989 they did a tour where the first set of each performance was devoted to the music associated with Walt Disney's films.

    Many musicians have played in the Sun Ra Arkestra. Some have stayed for relatively short periods, while others have remained with the group for decades. The list given here includes many of Sun Ra's most important and long-serving sidemen, as well as other musicians who have gone on to (artistically) productive careers. Biographical sketches of some of these musicians can be found in Valerie Wilmer's As Serious As Your Life.  Some of the dates of tenure listed below are taken from personnel listings on recordings, so they may only be partially accurate. Other biographical information can be found in The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz.

John Gilmore: 1956-current

Gilmore's main instrument is tenor saxophone, on which he is an excellent soloist. In addition he has played clarinet, bass clarinet, drums, and timbales, and has sung lead vocals. He has also performed with Andrew Hill, Art Blakey, Clifford Jordan, and Paul Bley.

Marshall Allen: 1957-current

Allen joined the Arkestra shortly after it was formed, and has stayed ever since. His main instrument is alto saxophone, on which he is a master of so-called "outside" techniques (overblowing, extreme registers, false fingerings, and tone quality manipulation). He also plays flute, oboe, and kora. Two of his specialties are the ballads "Prelude to a Kiss" and "Cocktails for Two".

Pat Patrick: 1956-current, intermittently

Patrick plays a variety of reed instruments. His two main instruments are alto and baritone saxophone. He has also played electric bass. In addition to playing with Sun Ra, he has played with Duke Ellington, Thelonious Monk, and Mongo Santamaria. He also composed the hit song "Yeh-Yeh", and was a member of the reed section for John Coltrane's Africa/Brass sessions.

James Jackson: 1960-current

Jackson plays bassoon, flute, and the Ancient Egyptian Infinity Drum, which he built himself. He has also sung lead vocals on "Mack the Knife" (on the record Live at Praxis '84, Vol. 2).

Danny Thompson: 1960-current

Thompson's main instruments are baritone sax and flute. He also runs a store in the Arkestra's neighborhood called Pharoah's Den and is in charge of the business end of El Saturn records.

Elo Omo: 1972-mid 1980s

Omo's main instrument is bass clarinet. He has also played alto sax, flute, and contra-alto clarinet.

Danny Davis: 1960-late 1970s

Davis' main instrument is the alto sax. He was an important soloist in the Arkestra.

Michael Ray: 1978-current

Ray is a trumpeter and lead vocalist. His stage presence is very energetic; during one performance, he unexpectedly leapt out into the audience during one of his trumpet solos.

June Tyson: ca. late 1960s-current

Tyson is the Arkestra's main vocalist. Her distinctive sound can be heard on "Space is the Place" and "Astro-Black". She is also a dancer and violinist.

Leroy Taylor: 1970-current, intermittently

Taylor is a multi-reedist, performing on bass clarinet, contra-alto clarinet, alto sax, oboe, and a bassoon fitted with a trumpet mouthpiece.

Ronnie Boykins: 1957-early 1970s

Boykins was one of the most important Arkestra members, and a very innovative bassist. He has also recorded with Archie Shepp, Rahsaan Roland Kirk, and Steve Lacy. He died in 1980.

Julian Priester: 1956-1957, current

Priester is a well-known trombonist. In addition to Sun Ra, he has played with Booker Little, Max Roach, Herbie Hancock, and David Holland. He left the Arkestra in the late 1950s, but has reappeared on their most recent recordings.

Ahmed Abdullah: late 1970s, current

Abdullah is a trumpeter. In addition to his work with Sun Ra, he has led his own recording dates. Although he left the Arkestra for a long period, like Priester he has reappeared on their recent recordings.

Vincent Chancey: late 1970s-early 1980s

Chancey is a French horn player. He has since performed with David Murray and Muhal Richard Abrams.

Craig Harris: late 1970s-early 1980s

Harris is a trombonist. He has also performed with David Murray, Henry Threadgill, and Muhal Richard Abrams, and has led a number of his own recording dates.

Clifford Jarvis: 1960s-mid 1970s

Clifford Jarvis is the drummer who has played with the Arkestra for the longest period. He has also recorded with Pharoah Sanders, Alice Coltrane, Freddie Hubbard, Yusef Lateef, and Randy Weston.

James Spaulding: late 1950s, current

Spaulding is an alto saxophonist and flutist. He played on some of the Arkestra's earliest recordings, and has reappeared on their most recent ones. He has also recorded with Pharoah Sanders and Freddie Hubbard and has led a number of his own recording dates.

John Ore: mid 1960s, current

Ore is a bassist who is perhaps best known for playing with Thelonious Monk in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Ore played with the Arkestra in the mid-1960s, and has reappeared on their most recent recordings. He has also recorded with Lester Young and Earl Hines.

Sun Ra can be thought of as one of these twentieth-century identities, yet it is clear that he does not view himself or his music as a harbinger of cultural decay, but rather he sees his mission as the enlightenment and betterment of all humanity.

    The first point that needs to be clarified is exactly what to call Sun Ra's beliefs. I have used the term "beliefs" up to now because it seems that this word is relatively neutral and uncommitted (as opposed to "religious beliefs" or "convictions"). Yet because of this, this term also seems inappropriate in discussing something that is neither neutral nor uncommitted. There are several other terms that may be applicable that come to mind: "world-view", "philosophy", "ideology", "religion", and "ethos" for example. Each of these terms could be applied with some degree of accuracy, yet all are lacking for various reasons. Geertz has clarified the terms "ethos" and "world-view" in the following passage:

The meaning of "ideology" is more difficult to assess. Geertz recounts the negative connotations of this term as stated by Werner Stark: ideology is "psychologically 'deformed' ('warped', 'contaminated', 'falsified', 'distorted', 'clouded') by the pressure of personal emotions like hate, desire, anxiety, or fear" (ibid.: 196-197). Geertz, however, assigns ideology a more positive function:

Returning to the term "ethos", Jung provides a definition from his own unique perspective:

The word "philosophy" has been used more than any other to describe Sun Ra's beliefs. It seems to be the easiest one to apply, as it is a general, all-encompassing term. Manly P. Hall has even described it as something that

    When examining Sun Ra's beliefs, it becomes apparent that they contain elements of all of the above. Like ethos, they clearly have their own tone and character and they are certainly a creative product that to many people appears, if not irrational, at least inscrutable. They also take into account Sun Ra's view of the world, humanity, and himself, and so qualify as a world-view. They are ideological in that they have a clear goal and are usually articulated in ways that can easily be described as "ornate" or "vivid". And Sun Ra's beliefs include goals that clearly coincide with those of Hall's philosophy and even employ the same kind of outer space imagery.

    However, Sun Ra has his own term for what could be called his ethos, world-view, ideology, or philosophy. This term is "equations". Sun Ra has made it clear that he is not dealing with philosophy. He has said "People ask me about my philosophy all the time, but it's not a philosophy, it's an equation" (Macnie 1987: 60). When asked "Has this sort of philosophy been with you ever since the beginning, ever since the (Fletcher) Henderson band?", Sun Ra responded

In fact, in one interview, Sun Ra listed philosophy as one of humanity's preoccupations that prevents them from achieving any contact with higher realms:

    In an earlier interview, when asked about his religion, Sun Ra responded "Actually it's not really a religion, but I guess it's the nearest word you'll come to it on the planet" (Townley 1973: 18). Although this doesn't seem like a very strong denunciation, it is apparent from the Primack and Corbett interviews where Sun Ra classified religion. Sun Ra is not a philosopher or a preacher; he characterizes himself as "a scientist, I deal with equations. You might say a spiritual scientist and also a cosmo musical scientist" (Rusch 1984: 66). Sun Ra's poem "A Blueprint/Declaration" describes the nature of these equations:

One part of an equation

Is a blueprint/declaration of the other part

Similar

Yet differentially not. . .

It is nothing

If it is all

Still there are different alls

The end is all

But all is everything

Yet if everything is all/the end

It denies the other side of the end

For some ends

Have many points leading to their respective selves

And there are/is each/their many points

Leading out from their

Respective selves

(Sun Ra 1985).

This poem describes his equations in a way that might not be immediately understandable. The first section describes a simple duality, which is then amplified into a more multi-leveled form in the second part of the poem. Many of Sun Ra's poems do not deal with concrete images, so readers perhaps must deal with the poems on another level of understanding. Sun Ra's poem "Cosmic Equation" describes the type of individual whom these equations are intended for:

Subtle living equations

Clear only to those

Whose wish is to be attuned

To the vibrations of the Outer Cosmic World

Subtle living equations

Of the outer realms

Dear only to those

Who wish fervently the greater life

(Sun Ra 1965).

    Sun Ra has described some of the sources of his equations. When asked "When did you first start formulating your philosophy?" Sun Ra answered, "Well, I didn't formulate it" (Townley 1973: 18). In his poem "Cosmic Equation", he describes how he received these equations:

Then another tomorrow

They never told me of

Came with the abruptness of a fiery dawn

And spoke of Cosmic Equations

(ibid.).

    In another interview, he says that he ways taught his equations personally by a non-human being who taught him "all kinds of things about Jewish mysticism, Egyptian, everything." Sun Ra adds that the key to using and benefiting from this information is the ability to put it together and use it properly (Steingroot 1988: 50). In the film A Joyful Noise he says "I'm talking about equations that are in their books, books from way back in ancient Egypt and Greece and Rome" (Mugge 1980). In another interview he refers to a course he taught at the University of California:

John Gilmore relates how he became acquainted with these equations (he uses the term "philosophy"):

Gilmore also provides a connection between Sun Ra and the Black Muslims:

This is not the place to decide who influenced whom. Suffice to say, there are several correspondences between Sun Ra's equations and Elijah Muhammad's writings, and these will be explored later in this chapter.

    Sun Ra has often spoken about himself, in terms of his nature and his mission on this planet. (The role that music plays in this mission will be discussed later in this chapter). Sun Ra's name is also a statement about himself, and it is a name with many implications. Graham Lock has pointed out that "Sun Ra" is a rejection of a slave name (Herman Blount), and is a name taken from "the Sun God of ancient Egypt, one of the first and greatest of human civilizations, and an African civilization, a black civilization" (Lock 1988: 20). Lock also says that such a renaming of one's self in this context has a distinct political implication as well, and mentions Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali in connection with this. Elijah Muhammad, the leader who inspired Malcolm Little and Cassius Clay to drop their slave names in the process of attaining a new self-awareness and self-esteem, has written on the importance of one's name:

    The name "Sun Ra" can be divided into two parts, "Sun" and "Ra". Ra is the ancient Egyptian god of the sun, and his attributes will be discussed later in this chapter, on the section on ancient Egypt. The sun is a prominent symbol or deity in many myths and religious beliefs. Instead of attempting a comprehensive overview of sun-symbolism, I will focus on two interpretations of the sun, as outlined by Elijah Muhammad and Manly P. Hall.

    The flag of the Nation of Islam consists of a star and crescent against a red background. According to Elijah Muhammad, the star represents justice, the crescent (or moon) represents equality, and the sun (the red back-ground) represents freedom. Muhammad writes:

Manly P. Hall describes the sun as a symbol of the threefold nature of man. Hall writes that the ancient sages divided the sun into three parts:

    In addition, Hall notes that these three aspects, spiritual, soular, and material, correspond to the threefold nature of God as embodied by the Holy Trinity, relating to God the father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit respectively. Finally, when these three parts of the solar power in man are united, "they form the Divinity in man" (ibid.). This concept of Divinity in man has a parallel in ancient Egypt, and will be discussed later in this chapter.³

    Sun Ra has often been asked about his name, both in terms of what it means and how he came up with it. Most sources give Sun Ra's birth name as Herman or Sonny Blount. In one interview, Sun Ra denies that his given name was Sonny Blount (or Sonny Lee, another name that has been attributed to him), stating that "They be sayin' my name is Sonny Blount but that's not true. . .I got another name, but it's a secret name" (Primack 1978: 15). In another interview, Sun Ra states that his name "Sun Ra" was given to him by the creator. In the same interview, he describes how he derived the name Sun Ra from his given name Herman:

Sun Ra's great-grandfather was named Alexander, which is another source of the name "Sun Ra":

Sun Ra further says that as Herman he was named after a magician named Black Herman. Magic is another important part of Sun Ra's equations, and will be discussed later in this chapter.

Asked to define what his name means, Sun Ra answered "It's a name that has something to do with cosmology, and something to do with a connection with other planets. . .continuation of humanity and continuation of the universe" (Fiofori 1972a). A slightly different answer to this question is given in a later interview, where he says "Sun Ra is not a person, it's a business name. . .and my business is changin' the planet" (Corbett 1989: 28).

Before detailing in more depth how Sun Ra characterizes his mission, it is necessary to look into how Sun Ra characterizes himself. Attali has written

Sun Ra can be considered as a visionary in this regard, and he has found several ways of describing the sort of imprisonment he feels as well as ways out of this imprisonment. Sun Ra has said repeatedly that he is not of this earth, and in analyzing why he feels this way one can interpret this kind of statement both metaphorically and literally. One way Sun Ra has characterized himself is as a member of an Angel Race. Sun Ra has described the characteristics of the Angel Race as follows:

This sounds similar to Manly P. Hall's description of a true philosopher:

Sun Ra has never stated that he is a god. In fact, he has said

Sun Ra's views on humanity will be expanded upon later in this chapter. Regarding his birth, Sun Ra has said that "My home planet is Saturn" (Shore1980: 48) and that the specific day of his birth, or arrival on Earth is very controversial and therefore he doesn't want to talk about it:

Sun Ra thus views himself as different, apart from humanity. Whereas Attali talks about musicians who are imprisoned by totalitarian power structures, Sun Ra feels that he is imprisoned by the human race and planet Earth, and that he is not free. He says "I see myself as P-H-R-E but not F-R-E-E. That's the name of the sun in ancient Egypt. I'm not really a person at all" (ibid.: 66) and "Some people are controlled by forces on other planets. I am, so I'm not really free" (Lyons 1983: 91). Sun Ra also views himself as a leader, and as such is restricted by the rules of humanity:

    Sun Ra's talk of being a leader and an Angel can be taken as an egocentric view of himself versus humanity. However, note that Sun Ra has said that he is not free, but is controlled by forces from other planets. Also, long time Arkestra member James Jackson has commented on the characteristics of a good leader as follows:

    Sun Ra's poems "Of Kindred Folks" and "The Differences" address Sun Ra in relation to others. In "Of Kindred Folks" Sun Ra writes of trying to find others like him, using trees as a metaphor for himself and these others. The trees he seeks neither dwarf or are dwarfed by him, and are attuned to he "Whose leaves rustle with music to the soft accompaniment of the winds" (Sun Ra 1985). The poem "The Differences" approaches this feeling of otherness from another angle:

Sometimes in my amazing ignorance

others see me only as they care to see

i am to them as they think

according to the standard i should not be

and that is the difference between i and them

(ibid.).

    Sun Ra has also characterized this situation in a matter-of-fact way, stating "It's hard for a man to really give proper respect to anyone who says they're an angel or someone who says they're from other dimensions" (Steingroot 1988: 47).

    Sun Ra, then, views himself as different, and this difference has obligated him to change humanity, a mission which he reluctantly accepts. His mission concerns "the destiny of humanity and what I possibly could do to help" and he feels that "I should always be doing what I was supposed to do on this planet, regardless of whether the planet responded or not" (Fiofori 1970a: 16). This mission is to help mankind, who "has failed spiritually, educationally, governmentally" and he is "right here as a bridge for them to get help" (Mugge 1980). Sun Ra sees that the way for humanity to improve itself is "to recognize the myth and become part of my mythocracy, instead of their theocracies and their democracies and the other -ocracies they got, they can become of a magic myth, the magic touch of the mythocracy" (ibid.).

    Sun Ra recognizes that this is a difficult task. He has said that "What I'm doing is something that a lot of people have tried to do, but they have met defeat from humanity" (Townley 1973: 18). In more bitter words, he describes other reasons for his reluctance in accepting this task:

In fact, in one interview Sun Ra declares that

Sun Ra's mission can be seen as an enormous undertaking, and in spite of resistance from people and his self-professed failure, he continues. Sun Ra views his music as the method whereby he will help humanity, and his views on his music in this regard will be discussed later in this chapter.

    Another important aspect of the Sun Ra equation is his view of humanity and the planet Earth as a representative of humanity. That state of humanity is the motivating factor behind Sun Ra's mission and music, so it is necessary to look into what his view of humanity consists of. In this discussion it is important to keep in mind what the actual state of humanity is as opposed to what the potentials for humanity are. Sun Ra addresses both actual and potential man.

    The actual state of humanity, the present reality of humanity, is not something to be envied in Sun Ra's opinion. He says that people are in a "state of savagery. . .worse than the heathens of ancient days" (Primack 1978: 41). Human beings are also, cruel, ignorant, and powerless. Sun Ra says

Manly P. Hall has written, concerning the current condition of humanity:

Sun Ra also states that another problem with humanity is that they lack discipline, and have no freedom because they bow to death (Rusch 1984: 65). Sun Ra's views on discipline and death will be enumerated later in this chapter. However, in Sun Ra's view, humanity is not entirely to blame for its condition. He has said

Sun Ra does not "harbor malice towards any man because man needs a lot of help. If I hadn't risen above mankind, I wouldn't know that" (Townley 1973: ). In fact, one of the reasons, in Sun Ra's view, why people have not been able to understand him, his music, or his intentions is because

In his poem "The Bound Eternity", Sun Ra describes his feelings toward humanity:

I used to love the woman and the child and the man

Now, I hate the woman

I hate the child

I hate the man. . .

I hate what the woman has had to be and do

I hate what the man has had to be and do

I hate what the child has had to be and do

I hate this present world

(Sun Ra 1985).

    Note that Sun Ra hates the present state of man, woman, and child not because of their inherent natures, but because of what they have been forced to be and do. Sun Ra sees that people have unattained potentials, and must achieve these in order to escape their present condition. Sun Ra has said "that the best hope for man is destruction" (Rusch 1984: 65). It can be inferred that Sun Ra does not mean literal, physical destruction, but rather a destruction of man's current nature to achieve a higher realm of awareness. Sun Ra's poem "Calling Planet Earth" says

There is something in the Cosmos called

Fellowship. Reach for it

(Sun Ra 1990).

    Sun Ra has also referred to planet Earth in connection with the nature of humanity. According to him, love is not to be found on planet Earth: "There's no love on this planet. It dwells elsewhere, but it's our last hope to survive" (Lyons 1978: 50). He also says that

Here, it is possible to see how planet Earth is acting as a symbol of humanity. It is humanity that is responsible for the lack of love and the sad truth of planet Earth. Sun Ra's poem "Beyond the Truths" speaks of the isolatedness of humanity on planet Earth:

Too long we've dwelt on isolated earth. . .

Here

Unaware of the things that lie/are beyond the truths

(Sun Ra 1985).

Another poem, "The Universe Sent Me", speaks of the potential for perfection of the planet:

This planet earth is a perfect place. . .

But still there is something missing here

A need long hidden from earth-guards gaze;

Of greater need than all the rest

(ibid.).

    In more recent interviews, Sun Ra has begun to speak of the planet Earth as a place that is merely rented by humanity, and that Sun Ra, representing the landlord of the planet, is preparing eviction notices for the people here. The landlord is not God, but the being that sent Sun Ra here. According to Sun Ra, this landlord has "never spoken before, but now he's saying, 'You haven't paid no taxes on the wind, and no taxes on the sun'. . .The earth belongs to someone, but that someone is not m-a-n" (Macnie 1987: 70, also Sale 1987: 57 and Corbett 1989: 28).

Although he has often spoken about his place among planet Earth and humanity, Sun Ra has rarely been asked specifically how he feels about America. In one interview where he was asked if he feels like an outcast in America, he replied

The distance that Sun Ra feels from mainstream America, and the fate that Sun Ra predicts for America, echo the sentiments of Elijah Muhammad. In his book The Fall of America, Muhammad urges his followers to separate from the evil of American society:

Muhammad also forecasts the inevitable downfall of America:

Though not phrased with the same kind of detail as Muhammad, Sun Ra's views on America fall along similar lines. Yet Sun Ra does not view this fate as inevitable for humanity. Sun Ra has offered again and again to show people a possible way out of their current predicament. Some suggestions that Sun Ra has offered include the following:

The question is: can man conquer

The self-destructive traits and habits

of Traditive-mind & his tradictived world.

Yes, it is time for man to either destroy

Himself and become what is

termed "a new creation" or through

profitable non-vain thought become

a superior-creation far greater than any

concept ever authorized by the State of

man

(from "Cosmic Potential", Sun Ra 1985).

Sun Ra has suggested that within every person is the potential for divinity, but that people need to become aware of this fact and recognize the importance of certain symbols:

In discussing what some of these symbols might be, it is also important to elaborate Sun Ra's conception of human nature in relation to other ideas concerning this topic, in particular ancient Egyptian conceptions. Sun Ra has characterized human nature in two ways. One is a division into two, a duality, and another is a division into three. Sun Ra views the duality as a condition of opposites ("You can't have anything without its parallel and its opposite" (Mugge 1980)) and as part of the natural condition of humanity:

Mustafa El-Amin has written that "to enter Egypt you had to know that God created man to balance himself and that he should have two eyes but one vision, two ears but one sound" (El-Amin 1988: 45). Jung has written on the idea of this duality as being an essential part of a psychic totality:

The idea of two being better than one also relates to Sun Ra's concept of the Omniverse, which is a step ahead of the Universe:

    The word "atwo-en-ment", or attunement, is also a pun on the word atonement, or at-one-ment. The idea of the Atonement is "that Jesus was born for the sole purpose of dying for the sins of mankind" (El-Amin 1985: 79). The fact that Sun Ra prefers "attunement" to "atonement" should be kept in mind when Sun Ra's feelings toward Christianity are examined later in this chapter.

    Sun Ra has also made several references to the threefold nature of humankind: the physical, the mental, and the spiritual. John Burks has commented that when Sun Ra speaks of transporting people into outer space (outer realms) that he "plans to get them out there 'mentally, physically, and spiritually'" (Burks 1969: 17). In addition, Sun Ra sees humanity as suffering from a three-fold energy crisis: "the world is sufferin' from an energy crisis in the body of human beings, in the mind of human beings, and in the spirit of human beings" (Primack 1978: 41). Sun Ra's poem "Calling Planet Earth" also makes reference to this three-fold division:

There is no need to cry

No need to be confused or bewildered

Listen to the three of us

me, myself, and I

(Sun Ra 1990).

In this case, the "me" would correspond to the physical body, the "myself" to the mind or intellect, and the "I" to the spiritual essence.

    This threefold nature relates to the Sphinx, one of the important symbols of ancient Egyptian culture. In the riddle of the Sphinx, the answer to the question "What creature walks first on four legs? Then on two legs, and then on three legs?" is "man, the human being". The four legs, referring to a crawling baby, is also a reference to the physical or material existence of man. On two legs is the mature man, balanced on the two legs of physical and mental knowledge. The final stage, that of man assisted by a cane,

    This riddle also refers to another threefold aspect of man's existence:  birth, life, and death. Abdullah Yusuf Ali writes that the Muqatta'at, or abbreviated mystic letters that appear at the beginning of some chapters of the Holy Qur'an may also refer to birth, life, and death. For example, the letters "A. L. M." are found at the beginning of six suras in the Qur'an: ii, iii, xxix, xxx, xxxi, and xxxii. Ali notes that the "common thread" between all these Suras is "the mystery of Life and Death, Beginning and End." He adds that although there has been much effort to interpret these letters, "In mysticism we accept symbols as such for the time being: their esoteric meaning comes from the inner light when we are ready for it." His interpretation of these letters suggests that they are "symbolical of the Beginning, Middle, and End", and asks "are they not appropriate to the Suras which treat specifically of Life, Growth, and Death--the Beginning and the End?" (Ali 1934: 17, n25).

    Recall that the sun has also been characterized as symbolic of this threefold existence (Hall 1952: LI). The pyramid, another important symbol of ancient Egypt, also manifests this three-fold nature, but as it is also symbolic on multiple other levels, I will save discussion of the pyramid for the section on ancient Egypt.

Sun Ra's conception of the divinity or perfectibility of man has precedents both in ancient Egyptian religion and Islam. Mustafa El-Amin writes:

Abdullah Yusuf Ali elaborates in his footnote to this verse:

Imam Warith Deen Muhammad, the son of Elijah Muhammad, has also spoken on the inherent perfectibility of mankind:

In another lecture, W. Deen Muhammad discussed humankind in a wider cosmic context:

In ancient Egypt, human beings were seen as having the potential for attaining immortality and godhood. In discussing this in relation to Islamic concepts, it is important to remember the different conceptions of God or divine beings held by Islam and ancient Egyptian religion (for a comparison of these, see Ali 1934: 408-413). James summarizes the goal of the Egyptian mystery system as follows:

E. A. Wallis Budge elaborates on this in his Introduction to The Egyptian Book of the Dead:

In Egyptian religion, man is not divided into a duality or trinity, but into nine separate parts. These are

1) The Ka--the abstract personality,

2) The Khat--the physical body,

3) The Ba--the heart-soul,

4) The Ab--the heart, associated with the rational, spiritual, and ethical,

5) The Kaibit--the shadow,

6) The Khu--the spiritual soul,

7) The Sahu--the spiritual body,

8) The Sekhem--the power, spiritual personification, or form,

9) The Ren--the name (James 1989: 123-124, Budge 1967: lxi-lxix).

It can be seen that each of these, with the exception perhaps of the name, relate to or combine in some way the three aspects of physical, mental, and spiritual. The Ren, or name, however, is of equal importance, for according to James, "the Egyptians believed that in the absence of a name, an individual ceased to exist" (James 1989: 124). This is important to remember in light of Sun Ra's familiarity with Egyptian religion and his choice of his name.

This brief discussion of Egyptian religion will be expanded upon later in the section in this chapter on Egypt. In closing this section on the nature of humanity, a good summary is provided by Hall:

And finally, Sun Ra writes:

Once there was a man who lived for God;

Now where is a man who lives for man?

That he who lives for man may speak

To those who lived for God

And thereby man (each man among men) will live

In freedom from the tyranny of man

From the stupidity among men

From the brutality of darkness

("The Stage of Man", in Sun Ra 1985).

    In addition to being part of his views on humanity, Sun Ra has often spoken of the concepts of birth, life, death, and immortality in a more abstract, general way. Sun Ra has a different perception of the concepts of "life" and "death", one that looks beyond commonly accepted, rationalist meanings of these terms. For Sun Ra, life (and birth) and death are traps that humanity has the potential to avoid in order to obtain immortality.

    The concepts of birth, life, and death are inextricably intertwined. Sun Ra has said that one of the things he is trying to accomplish is to "eliminate the idea of people being born. . . Because if they're not born they can't possibly die" (Wilmer 1966). Sun Ra sees a connection between birth and death, and states that changing the spelling of b-i-r-t-h to b-e-r-t-h reveals the relationship between these two ideas:

His poem "Be-earthed" connects this idea to the planet Earth:

Those who are be-earthed

Are be-erthed

Berthed. . .

They are phonetically birthed in their berth;

They are placed in

In their place

(Sun Ra 1985).

By accepting their fate on planet Earth, and accepting the ideas of birth and death, people are "placed in their place". Sun Ra has addressed the finite, physical nature of the kind of death linked to this birth (berth):

A similar idea of this kind of death is presented by Elijah Muhammad, who links it to Christianity:

Sun Ra has also commented on the Christian conception of immortality, or life after death:

Sun Ra is being ironic when he uses the word "righteous". When he uses this characterization, it can be taken as not meaning people who actually are righteous, but those who profess themselves to be.

Sun Ra's view on life and death is more transcendent. He speaks of a state of being beyond life and death. According to LeRoi Jones, "Sun Ra speaks of the actual change, the actual evolution through space. . .of the higher principles of humanity, the progress after the death of the body" (Jones 1967: 137). Sun Ra himself has said:

This idea of human beings having the potential to escape life and death has many precedents in religion and philosophy. Manly P. Hall has written:

Some of the ways that this idea has been addressed in Islam, Greek philosophy (by way of Egypt) and ancient Egyptian beliefs will be addressed here. In Islam, death means giving up attachment to the evils of physical life in order to obtain a better kind of spiritual life. For example, in the Holy Qur'an, Chapter 56, verses 60-61 it says:

We have decreed Death

To be your common lot,

And We are not to be frustrated

From changing your Forms

And creating you (again)

In (Forms) that ye know not.

Furthermore, Mustafa El-Amin points out that "In the Holy Qur'an, Allah says 'Mautu fa hayaa' (Die, that you may live)" and cites Imam Warith Deen Muhammad:

Looking back to Greek philosophy, we find a similar kind of idea. For example, in Pythagorean beliefs, life and death are related to the material and spiritual worlds. Materialistic life is spiritual death, and spiritual life is equated with material or physical death (Hall 1952: CCI). George G. M. James summarizes this Pythagorean belief as follows:

However, the underlying thesis in James' book is that Greek philosophy is actually stolen Egyptian philosophy. An examination of Egyptian beliefs provides us with interesting parallels to this concept of life and death. According to Budge, the doctrine of eternal life is an essential, basic idea in Egyptian religion. One of the key aspects of this eternal life is the attainment of equality with the gods. This is reiterated many times in the funeral texts. For example, the funeral text of King Unas reads:

A passage from the tomb of King Teta reads that when the King "is in heaven the seat of his heart is declared to 'be among the living ones on this earth for ever,'" which Budge interprets as

In another instance Budge describes how ancient Egyptians linked their fate to that of Osiris, hoping that through Osiris' "sufferings and death" the Egyptian's "body might rise again in some transformed or glorified shape" (Budge 1967: li-lii). Finally, one of the most explicit connections between the human and the gods can be found in the actual text of the Papyrus of Ani, upon which Budge's translation of the Book of the Dead is based. The passage reads:

Another aspect of Egyptian immortality is the partaking of corporeal pleasures. Though Budge has found no evidence for the actual reincarnation of the physical body (ibid.: lvii), he cites a passage where King Unas, after death, not only engages in hunting and eating, but actually hunts and eats the gods themselves, with the goal of attaining their godly powers:

Budge also describes ancient Egyptian ideas of rebirth, the idea of which is linked to the sun-god, Ra. The sun god disappears every night to make his journey through the underworld (Tuat), taking the souls of the dead with him. Under the guidance of Osiris, these souls are reborn when Ra's boat passes from the eastern end of the underworld to rise again, this rebirth therefore being linked to the sunrise (Budge 1969: 173, 257-258).

This is by no means a complete summary of ancient beliefs on life and death, but it can be seen that all of these relate in some way to Sun Ra's declarations of going beyond life and death. This is not an easy task to achieve, and with it comes obligations. Jacques Attali writes of the difficulty of constructing a political economy whereby death can "be accepted for what it is: an invitation fully to be oneself in life" (Attali 1985: 127). Sun Ra has also spoken of the difficulty involved in being assigned this task, of being an "ambassador of death" (Steingroot 1988: 51):

At this time it would be appropriate to go into more detail on the relationship between Sun Ra's equations and other ancient Egyptian concepts and symbols. Specifically, this section will deal with the symbolism of the pyramids and Egyptian conceptions of the deities, in particular the attributes of Ra.

The pyramids contain a wealth of symbolical significance, and there has been much speculation through the ages on the mysteries of the pyramids. Sun Ra has said:

The pyramid consists of a square base and four triangles. The measure-ments are such that if a line is drawn from the top of the pyramid to its base, and if this line is considered to be the radius of a circle, then this circle's circumference will be the same as the sum of the four sides of the base, which solves the problem of squaring the circle (Hall 1952: XLII, El-Amin 1988: 26-27). Jung describes the squaring of the circle as "a symbol of the opus alchymium" which "breaks down the original chaotic unity into the four elements and then combines them again, in a higher unity" (Jung 1974: 198).

The square base of the pyramid is symbolic of the number four. The four elements--air, earth, fire, and water--are represented by the number four, and thus four is a symbol of material essences. The concept of four is also manifested in the Tetragrammaton, which not only encompasses the four material elements, but the four "astral qualities of 1) vitality, 2) consciousness, 3) mind, and 4) intelligence." (According to the Gnostics, four represents a similar set of concepts: 1) silence, 2) profundity, 3) intelligence, and 4) truth) (El-Amin 1985: 170-172, 1988: 34, Hall 1952: XLIV). Imam Warith Deen Muhammad has pointed out that the four material elements correspond to human attributes, earth symbolizing the material or physical, water symbolizing man's moral nature, fire symbolizing wisdom, and air representing man's spiritual qualities. Furthermore, the Tetragrammaton, which consists of the sacred words "Yod-He-Vau-He", corresponds

From this square base emerge four triangles. The three lines of the triangle represent the physical, mental, and spiritual (El-Amin 1988: 38). If the sides of all the triangles are added together, this makes twelve which according to Hall symbolizes the twelve signs of the Zodiac. Hall also notes that:

Mustafa El-Amin points out that the number seven is also manifested in the pyramid in a simpler way, by adding the 4 of the base and the 3 of the triangle. He states that "The number seven represents completion; therefore, the pyramids allude to man's complete development" (El-Amin 1988: 38). Concerning the pyramid as a whole, he states:

Manly P. Hall succinctly summarizes the pyramid as "the gateway to the Eternal" (Hall 1952: XLIV).

Sun Ra has often spoken of the importance of ancient Egyptian civilization, and states that it should not be thought of as something that is of the past, but as a civilization which still has an affect on contemporary life. He has said:

In the film A Joyful Noise, Sun Ra says that the language of ancient Egypt is still spoken (Mugge 1980). James has outlined some of the curricula of the Egyptian mystery schools, which included such teachings as the Seven Liberal Arts (grammar, Arithmetic, Rhetoric and Dialectic, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music) and the Secret Sciences (Numerical symbolism, geometrical symbolism, magic, the book of the Dead, myths, and parables). According to James, astronomy was important because it not only dealt with the stars, but also "with the knowledge and distribution of latent forces in man, and the destiny of individuals, races, and nations" (James 1989: 28, 135). James also states that the ancient Egyptian teachings have relevance for the present world. In addition to noting the similarities between the Egyptian sun god Atum and the modern scientific conception of the atom, he says:

As it says in the Book of the Dead, "Now I have entered into the place of hidden things" (Budge 1967: 189).

The Egyptian gods, according to James, were put into a group of nine called the Ennead, consisting of the sun god Atum at the head, and four pairs of gods created from the substance of Atum: Shu and Tefnut (air and moisture), Geb and Nut (earth and sky), Osiris and Isis, and Set and Nephthys. James notes that these nine gods correspond to the nine planets, and also that the "worship of the planets began in Egypt" and that "the Egyptian temples were the first observatories of history" (James 1989: 118-119, 145-146). Budge has also written on the nonetary grouping of gods, which he termed "paut" or "nine". Budge writes that the priests of Annu (Heliopolis) grouped the "nine greatest gods of Egypt" into a paut neteru ("company of gods") consisting of Tmu, Shu, Tefnut, Seb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys. Tmu was the chief god of Annu, and was later combined with Ra to form the composite god Tmu-Ra (Budge 1967: xcvii).

The Egyptian sun-deity was known by many names, for example Atum and Ptah, and combined with other gods such as Tmu, but the most well known name for the Egyptian sun god is Ra. (In the legend of Ra and Isis, Ra says "I am of many names, of many forms" (Budge 1969: 378)). The word "ra" itself, according to Budge, meant "operative and creative power" and as a proper name meant "creator". In physical form Ra consisted of a human body with a hawk's head, and "on his head wears his symbol. . .the disk of the sun encircled by the serpent khut." In his right hand he holds the Ankh, the symbol of life, and in his left hand he holds the sceptre, the symbol of sovereignty (Budge 1969: 322-323). Ra was the supreme creator. According to Budge:

In the "Book of Knowing the Becomings of Ra," Ra in the form of the god Neb-er-tcher, says "I was the creator of everything which came into being; now when I had come into being myself, the things which I created and which came forth from out of my mouth were many" (ibid.: 294). As the god of the sun, Ra was responsible for rising in the sky every day, and from this he came to symbolize "the victory of right over wrong and of truth over falsehood" (Budge 1967: cxi). In the Papyrus of Ani, Ra also represents the future: "Now Yesterday Osiris is, now Tomorrow Ra is" (ibid.: 30). In keeping with the Egyptian conception of the potential for man to share attributes with the gods, Ra is said to have once been a king of Egypt, and every ruler of Egypt since then was shown to have the blood of Ra in his veins (Budge 1969: 329). Furthermore, the figure of the Sphinx near the Pyramids of Giza is a representation of Heru-khuti, a form of the god Horus who was also one of the principle forms of Ra (ibid.: 470-472). Considering the importance of names, we can see that Sun Ra has indeed chosen a formidable namesake.

Another Egyptian deity whose attributes would make him important to Sun Ra's equations is Thoth, the god of writing and wisdom. Ra and Thoth are closely related in that both are referred to as One, and both were self-begotten and self-produced. Thoth has also been referred to as "the reason and mental powers" of Ra, and possesses powers even greater than those of Ra (ibid.: 401, 407). Budge summarizes some of the powers of Thoth as follows:

Although Sun Ra has rarely invoked Thoth in his statements, it will be seen how the attributes of Thoth are important in that they relate to another aspect of Sun Ra's equations, the importance of outer space.

Sun Ra often invokes the terms "magic", "myth", and "impossible" when describing what he is doing, and when trying to help others understand what he is doing. According to Attali: "Levi-Strauss. . .has tried to show that music in our society has become a substitute for myth" (Attali 1985: 28). Sun Ra has not substituted his music for myths, but rather has incorporated the ideas of myths, magic, and impossibilities into his larger overall equational scheme. Myths and music are not substitutes, but are united: both are used for the same purpose simultaneously, the music incorporating the myth and vice versa. Sun Ra feels that it is important for people to move away from the realm of realities and possibilities and into the world of myth and impossibilities. For Sun Ra, magic, myth, and the impossible are all means to the same end and thus work together. For example, myth and the impossible are linked as follows:

In the following passage, myth and magic are linked to each other and with the concept of immortality:

In Sun Ra's view, the present state of humanity is tied to reality, and it is magic which offers the key for humanity to reach its full potential:

Sun Ra's poem "Living Parable" clearly outlines how myth can be used to achieve a higher understanding:

Wisdom on abstract planes

uses myth as a medium to understanding

Thus a living parable to the outward or inward truth

Is every myth

(Sun Ra 1985).

Sun Ra has on several occasions mentioned "The Kingdom of Not". This kingdom is a symbol for the potential things that are not yet to be, and it is also a link to the role of music in Sun Ra's equations. In the poem "Of Notness" it reads:

The Kingdom of not

A realm of myth

See the mythery

Of the non-existent-mystery

It is not but yet is. . .

A realm of angelic-celestial myth

And no one knows where

But still it is ye always there

(Sun Ra 1985).

Sun Ra elaborates on the Kingdom of Not and its ties to music in this passage:

Magic is linked to the impossible in the following statement where Sun Ra says, "If I thought of it as magic, I would think of it as impossible" and goes on to say "If I was going to deal in magic I would have purple magic, blue magic, all the different types of magic" and not just the commonly considered "black" magic and "white" magic (Burks 1969: 16). It is also important to remember that Sun Ra's given name was Herman, and that he was named after a magician named Black Herman, "one of the greatest magicians that ever lived" and that "probably I've got some of his attributes" (Steingroot 1988: 50).

Sun Ra also believes that the key to humanity's survival lies in the impossible. He says "Everything that's possible's been done by man. I have to deal with the impossible" and "the only way the world's gonna survive, this impossible thing. I'm talking about impossibilities" (Corbett 1989: 26, 24). Consistent with this Sun Ra has described his mission, "to change five billion people to something else", as impossible, but "I've been ordered to do it" and he says that as a Gemini, he is "quite pleased to [do] the impossible" (ibid.: 26, 27, Macnie 1987: 62). Words play an important part in the impossibility. Sun Ra's poem "Words and the Impossible" states that "the way to the impossible is through the words" (Sun Ra 1985), and accordingly, one of the way Sun Ra describes himself is as a "wordologist" (Steingroot 1988: 50).

One of the ideas that Sun Ra cites more often than any other, and whose importance he continually stresses, is that of discipline. He has said that art does not begin with imitation, but with discipline (Lyons 1978: 17). Discipline is an extremely important attribute for his musicians to have, and comments from Sun Ra and some of his musicians concerning discipline will be included later in this chapter. According to Sun Ra, humanity may think that they are free, but they are not because they lack discipline. This lack of freedom and discipline keeps them tied to death (Rusch 1984: 65). He has said:

Because humanity at this time lacks discipline does not mean that it is impossible for them to achieve it, and it can be inferred from the above quote that if humanity is a part of nature or the universe, then it has the capability for discipline inherent within it. Imam Warith Deen Muhammad has commented on this inherent capacity along similar lines:

Sun Ra has mentioned that one of the places where he learned about the importance of discipline, as well as being a leader, was from a secret organization called American Woodman he joined at the age of ten (Rusch 1984: 64-65). To try to instill the idea of discipline into young people, Arkestra member Danny Thompson runs a store in their neighborhood called Pharoah's Den, for the purpose of teaching the neighborhood children about precision and discipline, as well as about outer space and ancient Egypt (Mugge 1980).

Sun Ra has said, concerning ancient Egypt, that "somehow [it] is thought of as a kingdom of bondage. It would be better to say the kingdom of discipline. The kingdom of precision" (Mugge 1980). George G. M. James has outlined how discipline figured into the initiation rites and teachings of the Egyptian mystery systems. According to James, an initiate into the Egyptian mysteries must exhibit the following "ten virtues" or "ten commandments":

1) control of one's thoughts,

2) control of one's actions,

3) devotion to purpose,

4) faith in his teacher,

5) faith in his ability to learn,

6) faith in himself to wield the truth,

7) freedom from resentment when being persecuted,

8) freedom from resentment when being wronged,

9) the ability to distinguish right and wrong,

10) the ability to distinguish the real and unreal.

Through keeping these ten commandments, the initiate would eventually remove the ten fetters of the soul, paving the way for him to attain a divine, godlike state (James 1989: 104-106). It can be seen that all of these virtues involve some sort of discipline on the part of the initiate.

By using the term "ten commandments" in this context, James alludes to the more well-known Ten Commandments of the Old Testament (Exodus 21: 3-17, Deuteronomy 5: 11-12). In the Egyptian Book of the Dead there are found the Negative Confessions, the ancient Egyptian code of ethics, which have been "traced as the likely source of the Ten Commandments" by Dr. Yosef A. A. ben-Jochannan (Lock 1988: 280fn). In all, there are forty-two of these confessions, which represent a self-imposed disciplinary code of behavior. Several of these confessions correspond to the Ten Command-ments. For example:

When it is recalled that Moses had "learned the various signs and symbols of Egypt, and the various spiritual and human sciences that Egypt had to offer" (El-Amin 1988: 55), this can lead to some interesting speculation. By invoking ancient Egypt in connection with discipline, Sun Ra implies some interesting things about the nature of Christianity and the Bible, which will be discussed later in this chapter.

LeRoi Jones has succinctly characterized Sun Ra and the Arkestra as a "black family" and their music as a "beautiful black sound-world" (Jones 1967: 129-130).

Sun Ra's statements concerning black people exhibit a sort of dichotomy. On the one hand Sun Ra feels unity with and a desire to help black people, but on the other hand he feels alienated and apart from them just as much as from humanity in general. Sun Ra has stated that one of the ways for black people to help themselves is by being more disciplined:

One of the ways Sun Ra sought to do this in the earlier stages of his career was by leading a nationalist organization and distributing his own pamphlets that

Sun Ra's ideas of discipline, independence, and self-improvement are echoed in the writings of one of the most important figures in black nationalism, Elijah Muhammad. For Elijah Muhammad, black nationalism does not mean merely strong rhetoric or renunciation of the standards of white culture, but means taking concrete and productive steps toward the eventual goal of an independent, sovereign black nation. The first step in this process is for black Americans to "think for self first". He writes:

Graham Lock has noted that Sun Ra's desire to help black Americans was also shared by George G. M. James (Lock 1988: 21fn). In his book Stolen Legacy, James states that the reason for his book, which demonstrates that Greek philosophy was stolen from black Egyptians, was to help liberate blacks from "the chains of traditional falsehood, which for centuries has incarcerated them in the prison of inferiority complex and world humiliation and insult" (James 1988: 158). James called his program "The New Philosophy of African Redemption" and believed that the mental liberation of black people would be beneficial not only for them, but the whole world (ibid.: 153-162). Sun Ra has characterized ancient Egypt as a "pivot point as far as Africa is concerned" and said that "everything that the world knows today about Black Culture is in a sense capsuled over in Egypt" (Fiofori 1972b). By continually recalling the greatness of ancient Egyptian civilization and culture and linking it to modern black Americans, Sun Ra exhibits a kinship to a black scholarly trend that includes not only James, but Cheikh Anta Diop (The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality), Dr. Yosef A. A. ben-Jochannan (Black Man of the Nile and His Family), and Ivan van Sertima (Blacks in Science Ancient and Modern).

However, like his views on humanity at large, Sun Ra is disappointed by the fact that, as he sees it, black people have not yet met their potential. He has said "look at what the Black race did in America and it's not what I can be proud of" (Wilmer 1977: 87) and "I couldn't approach black people with the truth because they like lies. They live lies" (Schonfield n. d.). He has even joked "I'm the black sheep of the white race and the black sheep of the black race. . .which makes me the blackest of all!" (Barber 1983: 31). In spite of this, however, Sun Ra has not abandoned his duty towards black people. He has said "I'm sincere in the wish for Black people to make progress and to do everything that is more profitable to them mentally, spiritually, and physically" (Fiofori 1972b), and he hopes to achieve these goals through discipline, education, and his music.

Sun Ra often uses outer space imagery when describing his concepts. This imagery includes references to the universe, the omniverse (Sun Ra's own term), the cosmos, infinity, and various planets. For Sun Ra, outer space is the source of everything that exists outside of humanity's baser impulses and physical state. He has said "All planet Earth produces is the dead bodies of humanity. . .Everything else comes from outer space, from unknown regions" (Mugge 1980). The universe is a perfectly balanced natural phenomenon that affects and is affected by everyth