LISTENING NOTES

Ethnomu C136A/C236A - Music of Africa

Syllabus       

Listening Notes        

Creative Project Guidelines 

Glossary of Terminology     

Sample Reference Citations   

Suggested Recordings List

Guidelines for Review (Audio and Video Recording)

Tape 1: Textures and Techniques

1.       Monophony - Muezzin call to prayer. Daily prayer is one of the "pillars," or anchoring points, of Islam. It occurs five times daily, and is preceded by a muezzin's call to prayer.  This example is one of many various versions.  It was recorded at Banfora near the frontier between Burkina Faso (formerly known as Upper Volta) and Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). (African Music from the French Colonies, 1954, Columbia KL 205, ARLP 130, A2a)

2.      Monophony - "The Hunt". The player of this piece comes from the Djerma people who live along the Niger river.  Arabic influence is reflected in the use of the fiddle and in the highly ornamented melody. (African Music from the French Colonies, 1954, Columbia KL 205, ARLP 130, A3d)

3.     Polyphony - Flute duet of the Dogonpeople. The Dogon people are situated in Mali.  The flutes in this duet are transverse and are indigenous to the Dogon. (African Music from the French Colonies, 1954, Columbia KL 205, ARLP 130, A3b)

4.       Polyphony - Praise song - North Ghana. This song celebrates the achievements of a Dagbamba village chief.  Dagbamba society, like the Asante, is highly complex and hierarchical.  The melody in this piece is played on the violin, called gondze. (New Sounds from a New Nation, Tempo 7007, 1960. ARLP 688, B3)

5.       Homophony - "How Sweet the Name". Performed by the Revival Zion Group in Trinidad, this piece exemplifies a style of hymn-singing known as "lining out," in which a leader or presenter sets the pitch for the congregation while intoning the words of the next line. (Black Music of Two Worlds, Folkways FE 4602, 1977. ARLP 2153)

6.     Homophony-"There's a Little Wheel-a Turning.” The Tuskegee Choir, who perform this song, were, like the Fisk Jubilee Singers, a student group who performed four-part (soprano, alto, tenor, bass) arrangements of spirituals in concert. (The Tuskegee Institute Choir . . . Live, Brigadier 79-01, 1970. ARLP 3005)

7.       Polyrhythm - Folk music of the Akan people. The music in this example is associated with Akonodey, an Akan religious group. With the exception of one male drummer, women perform the vocal and instrumental parts. (Folk Music of Ghana, Folkways FW 8859, 1964. ARLP 737, A1)

8.      Hocketing vocal technique - Congo. Babenzele boys and girls of central Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly known as Zaire) perform this piece. The Babenzele are a sub-group of the Pygmy people.  At the time of this recording, the Babenzele were nomadic, supporting themselves by hunting and gathering.  This particular piece is called "Elanda," a young people's dance. (Bushman Music and Pygmy Music, Peabody Museum LD9, 1954. ARLP 663, B2)

9.  Hocketing vocal technique - Kalahari desert. This example is an excerpt from the Choma, a Khoisan initiation dance for boys in which a group of boys is surrounded by a circle of men.  The cries heard represent the sounds of the world. (Bushman Music and Pygmy Music, Peabody Museum LD9, 1954. ARLP 663, B4)

• Heterophony. This example is a distinctive North African popular folk style from Egypt. A nose-flute player accompanies a singer. Rapid trills and melismas are heard. (Music of the World’s Peoples. Volume 3. Folkways Records FE 4506, 1955, Item 50, ARLP 85)

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 2: Music Culture Areas

1.    Arab influence: Muezzin call to prayer

       Daily prayer is one of the "pillars" of Islam. It occurs five times daily and is preceded by a muezzin's call to prayer.  This example, one of many versions, was recorded at Banfora, near the frontier between Burkina Faso (formerly known as Upper Volta) and Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). (African Music from the French Colonies, Columbia KL 205, 1954. ARLP 130, A2a)

2.    Arab influence: Bardic song of the Dogon

       This example was performed by a griot of the Dogon people of Mali. (African Music from the French Colonies, Columbia KL 205, 1954. ARLP 130, A3c)

3.     Arab influence: Music for a camel tournament

       This example comes from the Tuareg people who are related to the Berbers and located in Sudanic Africa. The camel tournaments occur prior to weddings. (African Music from the French Colonies, Columbia KL 205, 1954. ARLP 130, A1a)

4.    Indigenous African music: Praise song

        The Fon, who perform this piece, belong within the larger society known as Benin (formerly known as Dahomey), which, like the Yoruba and Asante, was one of the complex, hierarchical forest states of West Africa.  The example is a song in praise of the leader of the Fon. (Musiques Dahomeénnes, Ocora OCR 17, 1963. ARLP 648, A3)

5.    Indigenous African music: Ewe music

        The Ewe people are located primarily in southeast Ghana and the southern half of Togo and Benin. (Africa, South of the Sahara, Folkways FE 4503, 1957. ARLP 291, C9)

6.    Indigenous African music: Kete piece

        Kete, the music of the royal courts of the Asante, consists of a drum ensemble that may be preceded by a vocal chorus and flute ensemble. (“Asantehene’s Kete,” Tape 1029)

7.    Pygmy (Twa) music: Kiru Bambuti

        The lead drummer is also the lead singer in this song celebrating childbirth. (Africa, South of the Sahara, Folkways FE 4503, 1957. ARLP 291, B5)

8.    Pygmy (Twa) music: Babenzele woman

        This is an example of a jodl, a song that accompanies such tasks as fetching water or nursing a baby. (Bushman Music and Pygmy Music, Peabody Museum LD9, 1954. ARLP 663, A2)

9.    Pygmy (Twa) music: Mixed choir

        The music in this example accompanies a dance performed purely for entertainment. (Bushman Music and Pygmy Music, Peabody Museum LD9, 1954. ARLP 663, B2)

10.    Khoisan music: Kalahari Desert

        Harmonies resulting from overlapping vocal phrases can be heard in this example. (Africa, South of the Sahara, Folkways FE 4503, 1957. ARLP 291, A5)

11.    Khoisan music: Kalahari Desert: Women's choir

        The women are accompanying a dance performed by men prior to a curing ceremony.  The purpose of the music and dance is to help the performers enter a state of trance. (Bushman Music and Pygmy Music, Peabody Museum LD9, 1954. ARLP 663, B1)

12.      Khoisan music: Kalahari Desert: Choir of men and boys

        This example is an excerpt from the Choma, a Khoisan initiation dance for boys into the society of men. (Bushman Music and Pygmy Music, Peabody Museum LD9, 1954. ARLP 663, B4)

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 3: Music Cultures Areas (Continued)

1.    Chopi xylophone orchestra music

        This song is one movement from a suite of pieces for xylophone orchestra. The number of movements may be as many as fourteen or fifteen, most of which are accompanied by dancers. The composer is Katini wasNyamambe. (Musical Instruments. Xylophones, Gallotone GALP 1326, ARLP 33, vol. 31)

2.    Two malimba xylophones: Luba people of southern Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly known as Zaire)

        This example is a wedding song that results from the interweaving of two melodies: the makaji, a nine-note melody that symbolizes the woman, and the malume, a fifteen-note melody that symbolizes the man. (Musical Instruments. Xylophones, Gallotone GALP 1326, ARLP 33, vol. 31)

3.     Mande (Mandingo) xylophone

        This song was recorded in northern Liberia during the feast that follows the fasting month (the year’s most festive occasion for Muslim Mande). Two balafons (the Mande term for xylophone) accompany the singing in praise of Prophet Mohammed. (ARLP 268 B2; Folkways FE 4465; Ex. 14 from Tape 5).

4.     Mande (Malinké) lute

        This is a love song recorded by the Malinké who live in Guinea near the Liberian border. The song is performed by a Muslim man, who accompanies himself on a plucked lute, and his wives. (ARLP 124 B6; Riverside RLP 4001; Ex. 12 from Tape 5)

5.     Dagbamba fiddle ensemble

        The Dagbamba people, who live in northern Ghana, have a highly complex and hierarchical political structure. This music here is played on several violins, called gondze, that are accompanied by several rattles (gagle). (ARLP 686 B3; Tempo 7007; use Ex. 13 from Tape 5)

6.     Tuareg lute music

        This is a war song recorded among the Tuareg of Timbuktu, Mali. The man is singing about the bravery of a chief and his marvelous horse “Yali.” By singing of the warlike qualities of the ancestors, the man inspires the young warriors to fight. The man accompanies his singing by performing the tehardent, a three-stringed plucked lute. (ARLP 122 A5; Folkways FW 8852; Ex. 17 from Tape 5)

7.     Nyamwezi drum ensemble

        The piece, a song of greeting for a chief, was recorded among the Nyamwezi people of Tanzania. The large drums that accompany this song are slung from a crossbar and beaten by four drummers with stout sticks while all the people sing their welcome. The song is led by a blind man whose duty it is to lead on such occasions. (ARLP 33, v. 1, B1; London LB 567; Ex. 15 from Tape 5) 

8.     Asante (Ashanti) vocal music

        This piece, recorded among the Asante of central Ghana, includes a vocal chorus accompanied by drums and bells. This example demonstrates the singing style and harmonic texture (homophonic parallelism) often used by the Asante. (Ex. 28b from Tape 7; Tape 1105)

9.      Morocco

       The singing, use of instruments, and formal organization of this example display elements from Arab culture. (ARLP 286, Vol. 5, Item 87)

10.      Ethiopia

       Male voice with lyre accompaniment. The lyre, called begenna (begana) in Ethiopia, is found primarily in the northern part of East Africa. The buzzing sound heard in the music is a characteristic feature of lyres in East Africa. (ARLP 286, Vol. 5, Item 80)

11.     South Africa. Singing by a chorus of Zulu men and boys.

        This example demonstrates the vocal harmonies characteristic of Zulu music. (ARLP 286, Item 76)

12.     Egypt

        This example is a distinctive North African popular folk style from Egypt. A nose-flute player accompanies a singer. Rapid trills and melismas are heard. (ARLP 85, Item 50)

Tape 4a: Contemporary African Music

WEST AFRICA

Burkina Faso

1.    Secular Popular Music: Afroc. Moustapha.

Moustapha, an African musician from Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) composed and produced this example called "African Vibes."

Côte d’Ivoire. Secular Popular Music

2.   Dopé: Amédée Pierre

This song is sung by Amédée Pierre who was one of the leading performers of contemporary popular music in Côte d’Ivoire during the 1960s. He combines elements from his own traditional Bete (name of ethnic group in Côte d’Ivoire) music with Congolese popular music. In Côte d’Ivoire, Pierre's music is known as dopé.

3.   Ziglibithy: Ernesto Djedje, also a well known popular musician in Côte d’Ivoire during the 1960s and 1970s and a Bete, was famous for a musical style called ziglibithy.

4.    Alpha Blondy and the Wailers became one of the most popular musicians in Africa for the performance of reggae during the 1980s and 1990s.

Ghana

5.    Traditional Popular Music: Kplanlogo

Kplanlogo is traditional recreational music. Although played by a drum ensemble, the rhythms are relatively simple when compared to the music of royal drum ensembles. This example comes form the Ga people of southeastern Ghana.

6.    Highlife: Nana Ampadu and the African Brothers

Highlife developed in Ghana in the early 20th century as a result of interaction between Ghanaian musicians and U.S. jazz players. However, Latin American rhythms and instruments are very pronounced. Highlife was dance music adopted by both white colonialists and urban middle-class Ghanaians who utilized Western instruments. According to Yabuah Mensah, E.T. Mensah's brother who also was a highlife musician, the term highlife started as a catch name for the indigenous songs played by bands at nightclubs in the urban areas of Ghana during the 1920s. The people outside the clubs called the music "highlife" because they were not of the same class (socioeconomic level) of the couples going inside, who not only had to pay a relatively high entrance fee, but also had to wear full evening dress including top-hats (John Collins, Highlife Time, 1994, p. 42). The African Brothers, formed in 1963, play the guitar-band variety of highlife. Their lyrics mix street wisdom with thinly veiled political commentary.

7.    Highlife: E.T. Mensah and the Tempos, "Yei Ngbewoa"

E.T. (Emmanuel Tettey) Mensah (born 1919 in Accra, Ghana) began his musical career as a small boy when he joined the Accra Orchestra as a flute player. Later, E.T. and his older brother, Yebuah, formed their own group called the Accra Rhythmic Orchestra. In 1940, E.T. left his brother's band to join the Black and White Spots. Just after World War II, E.T. joined the Tempos, a group initially organized by a Ghanaian and British during the early 1940s. Eventually, E.T. became leader of the Tempos, and by the 1950s, was known throughout West Africa as the king of highlife. Under Mensah's leadership, the Tempos were pioneers in the performance of urban highlife dance band music. The group was a seven-piece band with E.T. doubling on trumpet and sax, Joe Kelly on tenor sax, and Guy Warren (now known as Kofei Ghanaba) on drums. Singing in thirds was typical of this style of music. Latin influences can be heard in the rhythm and instruments. Songs are normally performed in Akan or Creole English.

8.    Highlife: Ramblers International, "Akwanoma"

The Ramblers International Dance Band was organized by Jerry Hansen in 1962. Along with several musicians from Black Beat (a group formed by King Bruce), the Ramblers consisted of a fifteen-man line-up (wind, percussion, and guitars). Singing in thirds was typical of this style of music. The Ramblers made a living from their shows and records for nearly 20 years.

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 4b: Contemporary African Music

Ghana (Continued)

1.   Highlife: Ramblers International, ARCD 45, Item 12, "Ahomka won"

         (See notes for Tape 4a, Ex. 8)

2.   Highlife: Professional Uhuru, ARCD 45, Item 21, "Menu Kowaa"

3.   Highlife: Professional Uhuru, ARCD 45, Item 22, "Konkomba medley"

         The Uhurus (originally called The Broadway Band) was the first dance band of its kind in Africa. In addition to performing highlife and other popular forms of the 1960s, the group also played U.S. jazz, ranging from the music of Glen Miller (big band) to Charlie Parker (bop). The Broadway Band  was established in 1958 in Takoradi, Ghana, by Sam Obote, a Nigerian.  In the early years, Broadway was regarded as a national band in Ghana because the group often traveled with Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana's first president). Broadway changed its name to Uhuru (Swahili for "freedom") in 1964, and Stan Plange, a Ghanaian, became the leader of the Uhurus in 1965. The group traveled throughout Africa, the Near East, and Europe.

4.    Afro-Beat: Hedzole Soundz

         Hedzole Soundz is the name of a group that was organized in Accra, Ghana.  During the early 1970s, they regularly performed in discotheques in Accra and were very popular among the youth.  In the mid-1970s, the group recorded with Hugh Masekela (South African musician) and later toured the United States. In this example, the influence of James Brown can be heard in the dry, "scratchy" guitar style.

5.   Ephraim Amu: Miato Agbema

      Ephraim Amu is a Ghanaian composer and teacher who was among the first to use African elements (instruments, rhythms, melodies, African languages, etc.) to create African art music. Trained in Western art music, Amu’s conversion to African music took place when he was on the faculty of the Presbyterian Training College in Akropong, Ghana. Amu is known for his choral setting of flutes (atenteben) and voices performed in close harmonies. In some cases, he makes use of homophonic parallelism. (Personal LP, Ghana Asuafo Reto Dwom, University of Ghana Chorus, A3)

6.   J.H. Kwabena Nketia: Builsa Work Song

         Kwabena Nketia is a well known scholar, composer, and teacher who has published widely in the field of ethnomusicology. When the Institute of African Studies at the University of Ghana was established in the early 1960s, he one of the first directors. Also, he has taught at UCLA (1969-83) and the University of Pittsburgh (1983-92). In early 1990s, he returned to Ghana and established the International Centre for African Music and Dance. Although he has written many books, his most famous is the Music of Africa, which has been translated into several European and Asian languages. As a youngster, Nketia studied piano and composed many work using this medium. “Builsa Work Song” is one of six pieces from a large composition entitled Playtime. (Personal cassette tape, J.H.K. Nketia & Gyimah Labi in African Pianism, A8)

Mali

7.    Afroc: Cora Funk

         Afroc combines traditional African and electronic instruments. In this example, “Afric Mousso," the kora (also spelled cora) is used along with electric guitars, synthesizers, and brass instruments. On trombone is Fred Wesley who has played with James Brown for many years. This record was engineered by John Matousek who worked for Motown.

8.       Secular Popular Music: Ami Koita

         Ami Koita, a well known jalimusolu (term for women jaliya), was born in Djoliba, Mali, the village where Salif Keita (a famous Malian popular music singer) was born. She received her early musical training during the 1970s as a member of the Ensemble Instrumentale (a government-sponsored ensemble founded in 1961 by Mali's first president, Modibo Keita). Her recordings include Ami Koita (1992), Mamaya (1993), and Carthage (1995). She performs in the Maninka style of Manding music which is characterized by a medium tempo, very ornamental melodies over static harmonies, and sweet, long, flowing vocal lines. Dance is an important part of Maninka style, and women are the preferred singers. The ngoni lute is the traditional accompanying instrument, along with the tama (hourglass pressure drum) and doundoun drums (From World Music: Rough Guide, 1994).

9.    Secular Popular Music: Toumani Diabate

         Toumani Diabate is regarded as the prince of the kora (21-string harplute from West Africa). His father, Sidiki, holds the title, "king" of the kora. Toumani Diabete began his apprenticeship on the kora at the age of five and made his first public performance eight years later with the Kouli Koro Ensemble at the Mali Biennale (large festival). After winning the prize at that performance for Best Traditional Orchestra, he was invited to join Mali's National Ensemble. He recorded his first solo album, Kaira, in 1987/1988. He has also collaborated with the Spanish "new flamenco" group, Ketama. Their combined group, known as Songhai, has two intriguing international releases, Songhai I (1989) and Songhai II (1992).  Ethnomusicologist Lucy Duran states that "While his music is rooted in the classical tradition of Malian kora, Toumani has developed a highly individual style, borrowing techniques from other instruments, especially acoustic guitars and local ensembles." A critic from Option magazine states, "He underpins his melodic improvisations with strong driving rhythms, and produces bright, quickly decaying tones as well as percussive, textural tones for rhythmic accompaniment" <www.rykodisc.com/1/catalog/album/216.html> (2-15-98).

10.   Rail Band: Soundiata

         The Rail Band was a state-sponsored big band which performed music that blended Cuban and Mande sounds. Based in Bamako, the capital of Mali, it was one of the first groups in Mali to become well known for the performance of popular music. It was this band that helped to launch the career of Salif Keita, the person who sings the lead on this song. Although this version has been modernized, “Soundiata” is a traditional song created in honor of Sundiata, the founder of the Mali Empire. (ARLP 1935)

11.   Salif Keita: Bolon

         Known as the golden voice of Africa, Salif Keita is one of the most innovative musicians in the African pop music scene. Because he is a descendant of Sundiata, founder of the Mande Empire, Keita’s family did not accept his decision to become the lowly status of a musician. This is one of the reasons he moved to Bamako, and later to Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, and Paris. “Bolon” is the name for a three-string harplute used among the Mande. In contemporary music, bolon serves as a bass in the ensemble. (ARCD 624)   

Nigeria

12.   Highlife: Victor Olaiya and His All Stars

         Victor Olaiya (a Yoruba trumpeter), called "the evil genius of highlife,"  was greatly influenced by the Ghanaian highlife dance band music of E.T. Mensah (Mensah toured Nigeria in the early 1950s). Olaiya was one of the few highlife musicians to continue his career in western Nigeria after Igbo musicians returned to the east when the Nigerian civil war began in the late 1960s. The typical Nigerian highlife band included three to five winds, string bass, guitar, bongos, conga, and maracas. Though Nigerian groups incorporated elements from British and U.S. dance bands, the emphasis was on Latin American elements. Fela Anikulapo-Kuti, Sunny Ade, and Victor Uwaifo are just some of the artists who were influenced by the guitar-based dance music of Olaiya. 

13.    Concert/Art Music: “Joyful Day” movement I from African Suite by Fela Sowande

14.    Concert/Art Music: “Akinla” movement III from African Suite by Fela Sowande

         Fela Sowande was born in Nigeria. He received his earliest musical training there, but he later studied in London at Trinity College. In addition to his studies at Trinity, he led his own jazz band, played piano with American jazz pianist Fats Waller, and was the theater organist for the British Broadcasting Corp (BBC). He returned to Nigeria in the 1950s and became a pioneer in the scholarly study and documentation of Nigerian music.  He also continued to compose music which combined African and European musical ideas.  He has taught at universities in Nigeria (University of  Ibadan) and the United States (Howard University and Kent State University). "African Suite" was composed in the late 1930s.  These examples are from the first and third movements, respectively titled "Joyful Day" and "Akinla."

15.   Juju: Sunny Ade

         Juju is a popular music style of the Yoruba created in the 1930s. King Sunny Ade and his group the African Beats have become one of its primary proponents in the West.  His style combines such traditional instruments as the dundun (pressure drum) with electric keyboards and guitars.

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 4c: Contemporary African Music

Nigeria (continued)

1.    Afro-Beat: Fela Ransome-Kuti and the Africa of '70. Known as the Black President, saxophonist Fela was born in Lagos, Nigeria, and received his musical training in Britain. In 1969 he visited Los Angeles and was influenced by contemporary African-American music and political thought.  The result of these combined influences was Afro-Beat.  For his outspoken criticism of the military dictatorship of Nigeria, Fela has been imprisoned many times. This example is a selection from “Why Black Man Dey Suffer." Normally, the performance of Fela's songs takes at least half an hour. The "Shrine" referred to in this song was his home, nightclub, rehearsal and recording studio which was destroyed by the Nigerian government in 1986. He died in Nigeria, 1997.

2.    Sakara: Yusufu Olatungi

3.    Apala: Alhaji Haruna Ishola, "Chief Adeniyi..."

4.    Fuji: Alhaji Kollington Ayinla, "Ewenla Gbongu"

5.    Hajiya Barmani Mai Goge and Her Group

Examples 2-5 are popular styles that originated among Muslim Yoruba, but in the 1970s, this music began to have appreciation among most Nigerians. The origin of sakara is associated with the Spanish guitar that was introduced into Nigeria by Brazilian/Cuban immigrants during the late 19th century. The use of the violin or fiddle (goge) in sakara is an imitation of the guitar. Because all of these styles sound alike, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish one from the other. However, a major distinction is the use of instruments, which affects the instrumental sound and texture. Apala includes hourglass pressure drums while sakara often includes tambourines, metal jingles, pressure drums, and violins. Fuji was originally used to wake Muslims for their early breakfast during the Ramadan (an Islamic religious holiday) month. Tambourines, gongs, bottles, pressure drums may be included in fuji.  

6.    Christian Songs of Praise. Evangelist Sonny Okosun

Many popular musicians throughout Africa have begun to record religious music. While some refer to this music as gospel, others may call it spirituals, praise music, or simply Christian songs. Sonny Okosun is considered to be one of the most successful African musicians from mid-west Nigeria. His popular music contains a blend of the traditional music of the Bendel State (Nigeria) with western rock and reggae. Okosun's music from the 1970s was called ozzidi (the term is derived from the name of an Ijaw god). Although it was Afro-reggae that gave Okosun superstar status, he has performed disco and social protest music. His album, Fire in Soweto, was a powerful plea for the victims of apartheid (John Collins, African Pop Roots, 1985, pp. 43-45; World Music: Rough Guide, 1994, pp. 300, 310).

7.   Akin Euba: “Why Do You Not Dance” from Chaka (an opera)

         Akin Euba is a composer, scholar, and teacher who received his M.A. degree in composition from UCLA during the mid-1960s. Although a Yoruba, Euba’s family background is interesting because he is a descendant of the Africans who returned to the continent when slavery ended in Brazil. “Why Do You Not Dance” is a choral excerpt from the opera Chaka that Euba composed in honor of the nineteenth century southern African Zulu warrior.   

Senegal

8.    Secular Popular Music. Youssou N'Dour

N'Dour is a Wolof (the largest ethnic group in Senegal) of gewel (the Wolof word for griot) parentage. He is the originator and most well known performer of mballax, a genre that emerged in Dakar, Senegal, during the late 1970s. The typical mballax fusion of Latin popular music and traditional Wolof gewel music can be heard in this example. Listen for the Latin-styled trumpet playing and N'Dour's highly ornamented singing in this praise song for the "Bitim  Reew," the Wolof people who have settled and emigrated outside of Senegal.

9.    Secular Popular Music. Toure Kunda

Toure Kunda is a band from the Kunda area of the Casamance region of southern Senegal. Three of the band's members are brothers of the Toure family, a jali family of the Mande ethnic group of Mali. Toure Kunda is known for its fusion of rock and Latin and traditional jali melodies and vocal styles.

CENTRAL AFRICA

Democratic Republic of the Congo [DRC] (formerly known as Zaire)

9.    Christian Hymn with drum accompaniment (Neotraditional music)

The word "neotraditional" refers to the use of traditional music in a new and modern context. In this example, "Slave Regina" (a Western hymn performed by the Tabwa people of Zaire) is accompanied by Central African drums.

10.    Music of Africa: Musical Instruments. Guitars. “Masanga” by Mwenda Jean Bosco.

Although the guitar was introduced into various parts of Africa as early as the 16th century by the Portuguese, the instrument did not become widespread until the mid-20th century.  Thus, the guitar is a prominent instrument in most popular music genres. However, Zairean musicians developed a playing style that influenced musicians throughout the continent. The example included here, called “Masanga,” was recorded by Mwenda Jean Bosco in 1950. It demonstrates the type of music popular in Central and parts of East Africa during the forties and fifties.

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 4d: Contemporary African Music

Democratic Republic of the Congo [DRC] (formerly known as Zaire)

1.    Secular popular music. "Masida," from the compilation Sound of Kinshasa, was probably recorded in the early 1950s. Sung in Kingwana, a Swahili dialect of the Shaba region of Congo-DRC, this is dance music played on acoustic guitars that replaced traditional likembes (lamellophones). The guitar rhythms are picked in the same style as those of traditional chordophones and likembes. Other instruments include a soda bottle, which is used to play the timeline rhythm, a small drum, and a rattle. This song is one of the most important prototypes and foundations for popular dance music that developed later in much of Africa.

2.    Secular popular music. "Madina" from the compilation Sound of Kinshasa, probably recorded in the early 1960s. "Madina" was a very popular song from the late 1960s to the 1970s, and is considered a dance classic in East and Central Africa. Most apparent are elements from Latin America. Based on boleros (a musical genre from Spain), Spanish words are used but with Congolese additions. Electric guitars replace acoustic guitars. Commercial conga drums and maracas are substituted for traditional African drums and percussion. Also, a brass section is added. This type of ensemble came to be referred to as a jazz band.

3.    Secular popular music. "Zamba" is another classic hit of the late 1960s. Singing is in Lingala, the national language in the DRC, which includes words from different ethnic groups. The song is in the soukous style, which incorporates rumba rhythms as they had been used in Cuba. Three electric guitars are performed: a lead guitar, a second lead guitar known as mi-solo, and a rhythm guitar. Melodic polyphony can be heard between the two lead guitars. Singing in two voice parts became a characteristic feature during this period. A contrasting song form is also used: a verse section (similar to a son) is contrasted with a call-and-response section called montuno in Cuban music. The use of high-hats from the drum-set to play the clave rhythmic pattern led to a distinct style of performing the drum set among African popular bands using the soukous style. Brass sections are now a normal feature of the band.

4.    Secular popular music. "Omona Wapi." A classic and landmark soukous piece sung by Luambo Makiadi, popularly known as Franco (1938-1989), and Tabu Pascal also known as Tabu Ley or Rochereau (born 1940). These two men were considered rival giants of popular music in DRC from the late 1950s into the 1980s. Both men were leaders of very popular and trend setting jazz bands. While both are singers and composers, Franco gained immense following for his guitar licks (nicknamed the "sorcerer" of the guitar) and song arrangements that incorporated many elements from his ethnic heritage. Franco became the most celebrated popular musician from DRC and was known internationally. This song marks a historic point where these two rivals performed together and blended their different vocal styles. It is sung in the Lingala language. The piece is in the son-montuno style but the montuno has become a totally different section stylistically, rhythmically and in tempo. This section came to be known as seben.

5.    Secular popular music. "Bilala-bilala" by Pepe Kalle, a singer, composer and guitarist (known as the "elephant" of Zaire music because of his size); yet he was an excellent dancer. His characteristic vocal quality has a husky "soulfulness." Pepe Kalle can be placed in the early part of the third generation of the Zaire jazz band tradition. This song illustrates the development of the seben section so that it became a style of its on without the slow rumba section. This style of soukous became known as kwasa kwasa or madiaba. Alternative methods were used to indicate the "climax" of a piece through instrumental arrangement.

6.    Secular popular music. "Badinabu" by Tshala Mwana (born 1959). Originally a show dancer, Tshala Mwana emulated her female singer idol Mpon'go Love and gained international renown as a singer composer. Most DRC women started as dancers to break into the popular music world. Tshala moved to Côte d'Ivoire to establish her singing career. Her musical compositions have a different sound because of the incorporation of her ethnic mutuashi style. A funky mix of mutuashi with a ballad makes this piece distinctive style.

7.    Secular popular music. "Lowazo" by Kanda Bongo Man (born 1955?), singer composer, guitarist. (Some sources indicate that he is from DRC and not Central African Republic). Kanda Bongo Man belongs to a group of Francophone musicians who moved to Paris as session musicians and broke into the market from there. They sought to create a party music with greater studio control than their predecessors or counterparts in their respective countries. The result in the 1980s was a faster tempo, which was different from whatever style of music that had originated in their countries of origin. It also led to a greater blending of musical styles by Francophone musicians. "Lowazo" exemplifies Bongo Man's soukous style where he got rid of the slow rumba section completely and goes straight into the seben to create a faster soukous style. He also added synthesized sounds.

8.    Secular popular music. "Lisote" by Kanda Bongo Man. In this piece Bongo Man blends soukous with zouk. He also gets rid of the horn sections in the band. The later feature became his characteristic touch.

Tape 4e: Contemporary African Music

Cameroon

1.    Secular Popular Music

This example can be divided into two sections. The first slow section is heavily influenced by African-American popular music of the 1960s. The second section is more influenced by popular music from Ghana and Zaire.

2-3.    Secular popular music. Exs. 2, 3, and 4 are by Sam Fan Thomas (born 1952). This Cameroon born musician really became famous after he produced an album mixed in Paris with the international hit "African Typic Collection." Working with the popular makossa  rhythm, Thomas expanded on it by creating a faster tempo and internationalized it by using pidgin (spoken in several African nations in West Africa); he also combined French and his native Douala language. The result was a style that he named makassi. While the melodic aspects of the style are important especially with the vocals, the guitar, and the interlude sections, the timeline is foregrounded and reiterated in the drum, percussion, and bass. Thomas is a composer, singer, guitarist and incredible dancer. His concerts are also intense dance sessions.

    Mohe." This song is in the makassi style with an intense dance ethos from the beginning which is retained through the piece.

"Zimo." In addition to the use of the makassi style, Thomas adds sounds associated with South Africa since he is singing about Nelson Mandela prior to the independence of South Africa.

4.    "Makassi Again." This piece juxtaposes Thomas' style with his understanding of the music of famed Nigerian popular singer and political activist, Fela Ransome-Kuti. As a homage to Fela, Thomas uses the general intonation of the epic, a reed sound, and some jazz chord progressions that Fela used among other things.

SOUTHERN AFRICA

Malawi

5.    Secular popular music. Donald Kachamba. Donald was a member of the Kachamba Brothers who were brought to world attention by ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik of Germany. The music is in the pennywhistle style popularized from South Africa as kwela and developed in different East and Southern African countries. This Malawian example, usually called makwanya, uses the pennywhistle, a strummed guitar type and some percussion.

South Africa

6.    Secular popular music. "Pata Pata" by Miriam Makeba (born 1932). Makeba is one the most famous South African musicians of the 1960s and 1970s. Originally a jazz singer, Makeba was an exile victim of the apartheid system when South Africa was under the control of a white minority population. It is through the music of Makeba and some of her compatriots that sounds from Southern Africa gained international attention. This famous dance number juxtaposes the various resources present in an urban area including use of Xhosa language and English. The style includes a South African intonation, influence from American jazz, and the juxtaposition of contemporary instruments and playing styles .

7.    Secular popular music. "Hapo Zamani" performed by Miriam Makeba. The song is sung in Swahili, a language used in much of East, Central and Southern Africa. "Hapo Zamani" is in the form of slow kwela with Caribbean undertones.

8.    Secular popular music. "Lonyoka" by Ladysmith Black Mambazo, a famous choral ensemble that started in a town called Ladysmith. This piece is in a popular style known as mbube. It is characterized by a cappella singing in four-part harmony, rooted in Christian hymns but sung in a Zulu musical style in the Zulu language.

9-10. Religious popular music. "Intandoka" (Ex. 9) and "U Jesu Wami" (Ex. 10) by Ladysmith Black Mambazo are in the same style as Ex. 8 but with Christian lyrics and the characteristic coda of an anthem.

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 4f: Contemporary African Music

South Africa Continued

1.    Secular popular music. Hugh Masekela, a composer, singer, and trumpeter. Masekela is a disciple of famed jazz trumpeter Louis Armstrong. Since its beginnings in the early 1900s, U.S. jazz has always had a large following and market in South Africa. As a political exile and musician, Masekela also became an advocate and spokesperson of black South Africa's plight. In this piece he sings in his native Zulu language but blends musical and instrumental elements of jazz with his Zulu heritage. One of the jazz elements includes a solo run on the trumpet.

Zimbabwe

2.    Secular popular music. "Spirit of People" performed by Ephat Mujuru, an internationally known performer of the Shona mbira. This number illustrates how the rhythms and style of mbira dza vadzimu have been re-arranged in a studio to capture the essence of the mbira and hosho (shaker) against Mujuru's vocals. Music usually played on the mbira is transferred to other instruments and vocal parts to create a response based mostly on a traditional style.

EAST AFRICA

Tanzania

3.    Islamic religious song. Maulidi songs sung in Madrasa (Islamic school) accompanied by a tambourine-like instrument called daff. The songs are sung during Islamic festivals or to celebrate the festivals that commemorate the Prophet Mohammed's birth.

4.    Instrumental maqam. Popular secular songs performed especially on the east coast of Africa.  The style was brought to this area manly by Egyptians and practitioners of the Muslim religion. This is one of the movements of an instrumental suite that uses an Arab drum, violins, daff, ud (a plucked lute), and occasionally an accordion.

5.    East African taarab. "Mahaba jameni." A famous song in this style of music that combines Swahili poetry known as mashairi set against Arab-based instruments incorporating African dance rhythms and Indian intonation.

6.    Christian religious song. "Petero Wa Simoni" by IAC Mwanza Town Choir. This style of music is called makwaya. Kwaya is a Swahili transliteration of the English word "choir." Makwaya can be translated to mean "many choirs." Makwaya songs were first developed from the translation of European hymns into African languages and performed by choirs. "Petero Wa Simoni" is an example of a makwaya composition by Tanzanian musicians of the 1970s that use the formal structure of hymns. The song includes a stanza refrain with a call and response stylistic structure that expands the refrain by adding a section in a different feel, although the song is in the same meter.

7.    Popular gospel song. "Salama Moyoni" performed by Faustin Munishi (born 1960). Munishi is a Tanzanian musician resident in Kenya. Munishi rose to fame as a solo musician who broke away from the makwaya performance tradition and went on to make a career as a gospel musician. This song is a translation of a western hymn, "It Is Well with My Soul." Munishi takes the Swahili text of the translation and creates a new melody for it. He accompanies himself on the accordion and synthesizer.

8.    Secular popular song. "Matamko ya Viongozi Wetu" by Mbaraka Mwinshehe (died 1979). Mwinshehe made his recording career in Kenya mostly for commercial reasons but his music was appreciated in his native Tanzania. He is credited as one of the transformers of the dominant Zaire rumba to a Tanzanian "jazz band" style that successfully incorporated Tanzanian rhythms and the Swahili language. This song is in slow rumba. The lyrics are typical of nationalist popular singers of this time who sang on pan-African themes. He is summarizing the political themes of several heads of state in East and Central Africa.

Kenya

9.    Religious popular music. "Halleluya Tutaimba" by Mary Atieno and the IFC Choir. This choir, with the lead vocals by Mary Atieno, moved makwaya music further into popular music. This arrangement incorporates a traditional Kenyan Luo performance style with European hymn forms. Mbaqanqa (a South African popular dance music) bass guitar licks are added to Swahili lyrics.

10.    Religious popular music. "Maisha ya Mwanadamu" composed by Japheth Kasanga, with lead by Anne Kasanga accompanied by the Victory Sounds. The piece is in makwaya style but incorporates Tanzanian jazz band styles.

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa Tape 4g

Kenya continued

1.    Christian traditional spirituals. "Shivala ni Shimuli Vutswa," "Vahaga Valalila," "Hulila Muyenji, Hulila Yesu." Three Tiriki language Christian spirituals arranged and performed by Reuben Kigame and Douglas Jiveti with backup vocals. Lead solo is by Jiveti. These songs are part of Christian music traditional lore of the Luyia people; Tiriki is one of its dialects. Kigame maintains the performance form and style by adjoining several pieces together without a break and using simulated sounds that imitate two drums, shakers, and a cowbell. The harmony is part of the performance practice in some gatherings.

2.    Catholic mass. "Kyrie Eleison" and "Laudamus Te" from the Missa Luba performed by the Muungano National Choir. The Muungano Choir is from Kenya. Missa Luba was composed and arranged in DRC (former Zaire) through the efforts of Father Guido Haazen of Belgium and his Luba congregants at the end of 1950s. Father Haazen subsequently formed a group that sang the mass and toured Europe. The idea was to use Luba musical elements as a compositional basis for the Latin words of the mass. By the mid-1960s, the Catholic church not only sanctioned such appropriation, but also allowed for masses to be conducted in languages other than Latin. Missa Luba's success led, in different African countries, to the creation of other masses using African musical elements. In these two examples, the textual form is retained and antiphonal features of Latin masses are retained as are some harmonies like parallel fourths. But African features include Luba rhythms, drums, and melodies.

3.   Secular popular music. "Jane Ochieng" by Fundi. This music is in a popular style called benga. It is in the Luo language and incorporates a number of elements from the performance practice of the Luo nyatiti (lyre) style. The playing style of the bass and lead guitars is based on nyatiti music. The bass guitar also incorporates the drum style of the ohangla, a box drum used in Luo music, where slides are a featured technique. The nyatiti style also includes a climax section which is a vocal spoken part that encourages and praises the participants. Traditional bell parts are heard on the snare drum. The Luo musicians in this type of music usually sing in two parts.

4.    Secular popular music. "Ndoto" by Katitu 93. The band is made up of three men and they perform in the benga style as interpreted by the Kamba people. The epic has a characteristic Kamba tone color and style of playing popular guitar. Unison singing is characteristic of this Kamba version. The role of the bass is melodic rather than rhythmic (drum-like) as in the Luo version in which slides are done for melodic rather than a rhythmic tone effect. This song is performed in the Swahili language to reach a wider audience.

5.    Secular popular music. "Mbuta" by Sukuma bin Ongoro. This is in the Luyia benga style which is sometimes called mutibo. The piece includes two part singing, more melody and fuller harmonic effects than the Luo benga. The bass guitar is used both for drum and melodic effects. The music draws stylistic features from the sukuti dance/drum style and the litungu (lyre). The vocal dialogue in the middle is for textual interest and social commentary rather than encouraging dancers.

6.    Secular popular music. Two numbers by Fadhili Williams. Popular music of the late 1950s and 1960s in Kenya. This piece mixes South African jive with Hawaiian guitar style and adds a Kenyan twist. Williams is one of the earliest Kenyan recording artists of urban popular music and the composer of the international hit "Malaika."

Uganda

These songs are examples of the juxtaposition of a Ugandan ethnic group's style with the Roman Catholic faith and British education system. Some harmonic elements attest to Roman Catholic chant harmonies. There is also a tendency for Roman Catholic choirs to use more antiphony than Protestant groups in the same area. The three songs are all performed by the same choir.

7.    Hymn style composition arranged in the British colonial "music festival" style, where a traditional Ugandan tune or style is used with an arrangement in mostly pre-classical art music. The hymn is Africanized further through the use of the drum and shaker. The song refers to the Virgin Mary.

8.    A Christmas text treated as in a preamble.

9.    An Easter text. Same idea as Ex. 8 but an Easter text is used. Most unique is the 5 feel that may be traditional to this region of Uganda.

Many thanks to Sarah Truher for information on Senegal and Jean Kidula for material on Central, Southern, and East Africa.

Tape 5. Instruments - Chordophones

1.    Musical bow with bowl resonator - Hlengwe people of Mozambique

Topical song  -- “Ihlomulo walekaya mangawa yauima” (The pleasure of the people is my distress) -- accompanied by a chitende (musical bow). When the bow string is stressed, the sound produces two fundamental notes. The bow is struck with a light stick or stiff straw and stopped with the backs of the performer’s first and second fingers near the point of stressing.  (ARLP 33 v 27 B9; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57v from Tape 11)

2.    Musical bow (with calabash resonator) - Swazi people of South Africa

This topical song  -- “Ngoneni ngoneni bakithi?” -- was sung by two elderly Swazi women, one of whom played the bow. Among the Swazi and Zulu of South Africa, the makweyana (musical bow) is a woman’s instrument, while across the Limpopo River to the north, the instrument is performed only by men. (ARLP 33 v 27 B10; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57w from Tape 11)

3.    Musical bow (mouth bow) - Shona/Karanga people of Zimbabwe

A topical song -- “Teera Machangwa” -- accompanied by the chizambi (musical bow). In the song, the young bride speaks: “At home, I did not have to work as hard as this.” The player rubs a stick along a number of notches cut in the bow. The bow string, a ribbon of palm leaf, is moved horizontally across the player’s open mouth. The mouth cavity resonates as two or three notes are produced by the player when he stops the bow string with his fingers. (ARLP 131 Item 14 ; Columbia SL 213; Ex. 77 from Tape 15)

4.    Musical bow - Zezuru people of Zimbabwe

A topical song -- “Kwa Ambuya Asina Keriya” -- accompanied on the chipendane (musical bow). In the verses which accompany the tune, the singer remarks that you must always bring your mother-in-law a present on your bicycle carrier when you go to visit her, or she will most certainly be angry. (ARLP 131 Item 15 ; Columbia SL 213; Ex. 78 from Tape 15)

5.    Trough zither - Hehe people of Central Tanzania

A humorous song accompanied by a trough zither (ligombo). The player, uncle of the present paramount chief of the Hehe, is a master zither player. The ligombo, a long thin trough zither with six strings, is resonated by a large gourd attached to the instrument. The player’s small son taps a rhythmic accompaniment on the gourd resonator, while the older man sings.  (ARLP 131, Item 18; Columbia SL 213; Ex. 53 from Tape 10)

6.    Raft zither - Tonga people of Malawi

A topical song -- “Dale Wangu” -- accompanied on the bangwe (raft zither). The player holds the zither along his knee and plays it with the thumb and first finger of each hand, plucking the string on either side of the raft. The song refers to a young man who went down south from Malawi to work in Johannesburg, where he married a Sotho girl. (ARLP 131, Item 19; Columbia SL 213; Ex. 54 from Tape 10)

7.    Trough zither - Haya people of Tanzania

A legend accompanied on the nanga (seven-stringed trough zither). The player, who is an expert on his large deep-toned nanga, recites the legend of Mugasha, the spirit of the lake, and of how his people, the Haya, are supposed to have come up out of the lake in ancient times. This extract is a short portion of the whole legend; the full recitation requires fifteen minutes. (ARLP 131, Item 20; Columbia SL 213; Ex. 55 from Tape 10)

8.    Trough zither - Hehe people of Central Tanzania (similar to Ex. 5)

A humorous song -- “Ngwidika sadanga wapamagulu” -- accompanied by a ligombo (a six-stringed trough zither). The player, who is both a maker and player of this gourd resonated zither, is assisted by his son who sits beside him and taps out a rhythm on the gourd with the backs of his fingers while his father plays. The singer also on occasion flips the gourd to give emphasis to the music. (ARLP 33 v 27 B4; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57q from Tape 11)

9.    Trough zither - Haya people of Tanzania

A legend -- “Lukiza” -- accompanied by a nanga (seven-stringed trough zither). The player, who is Muslim and a famous singer of local legends, tells the story of an angry man who was enraged by the mis-rule of a certain chief in ancient times and threatened to attack him. (ARLP 33 v 27 B5; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57r from Tape 11)

10.    Raft zither - Tonga people of Malawi

A topical song -- “Ndalame” -- accompanied by a bangwe (seven-stringed raft zither). “Chumba chatimala!” Money spoils us! Even Jesus was sold for thirty pieces of a silver.”(ARLP 33 v 27 B6; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57s from Tape 11)

11.    Raft zither - Yao people of Malawi

Topical song  -- “Kazela kambe lemba” (Set the stone trap so that we may catch five and two mice” -- performed with bangwe (seven-stringed raft zither) accompaniment. (ARLP 33 v 27 B7; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57t from Tape 11)

12.    Raft zither - Chewa people of Mozambique

Topical song -- “Tisimbi wasauka” -- with bangwe (seven-stringed raft zither) accompaniment. This bangwe has wire strings and is resonated by fixing it into a rectangular hole cut into the side of a large gourd. (ARLP 33 v 27 B8; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57u from Tape 11)

13.    Harplute (bridge harp) - Mandinka people from The Gambia

This song, entitled “Ala l’a ke,” is one of the best known songs composed originally on the kora (21-stringed harplute). The title means literally “God has done it” and commemorates the settlement of a quarrel between two brothers over the right to the chieftainship of Fuladu (region of The Gambia) after their father Falai Kora had died in the early days of colonial rule. The younger brother usurped the throne and at one point had his brother punished when he thought he had threatened his life. This brought attention to the usurper however, and the British governor had the rightful heir installed. Instead of punishing his younger brother, he only asked for an apology, saying that it was God’s deed. The song was composed for this occasion. (ARLP 1601 A3; Ethnodisc ER 121-2; Ex. 56 from Tape 10)

14.    Harp - Ganda people of Uganda

Historical song -- “Ganga” -- accompanied by an enanga (eight-stringed bow harp [pentatonic]). This song relates the tragedy that befell one of the Kabaka’s (king’s) palace guards.  (ARLP 33 v 27 A1; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57a from Tape 10)

15.    Harp - Ganda people of Uganda

Historical song -- “Okwagala omulungi kwesengereza” -- accompanied by an enanga (eight-stringed bow harp [pentatonic]). This song describes the imminent danger of being too friendly with all-powerful men. Before the recording, the harpist rehearsed it by singing a series of syllables, which, he said, “reminded his fingers of what to play,” a device commonly used by harpists on learning a new tune. In this example, both the syllables and the words of the song are recorded as interesting evidence of harp playing technique, although the parts played by each hand from either side of the strings were not demonstrated separately. (ARLP 33 v 27 A2; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57b from Tape 10)

16.    Harp - Teso people of Uganda

Topical song -- Elosi aberu akipore imaniti abiro” -- accompanied by an adedeu (five-stringed bow harp [pentatonic]). “However well a woman may cook, her husband is never satisfied.” (ARLP 33 v 27 A3; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57c from Tape 10)

17.    Harp - Nyoro people of Uganda

Topical song -- “Ekyoma kyabora” -- accompanied by an ekidongo (eight-stringed bow harp [pentatonic]). (ARLP 33 v 27 A4; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57d from Tape 10)

18.    Harp - Dhola people of Uganda

Morality song  -- “Tichi mabere” -- accompanied by a tongoli (eight-stringed bow harp [pentatonic]). “There is nothing better than work. If you do not work, you cannot live.”(ARLP 33 v 27 A5; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57e from Tape 10)

19.    Harp - Zande people of northern Congo (The announcement on the tape that this is a lyre is INCORRECT. The instrument is a HARP, not a lyre.)

Topical song -- “Gitari na Congo” -- accompanied by a kundi (five-stringed bow harp [pentatonic]). The Zande are famous as blacksmiths. This song is about one of them who sang as he beat on his anvil. “My anvil is the true guitar of the Congo. And I play on it to show how I love my work.” (ARLP 33 v 27 A6; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57f from Tape 10)

20.    Lyre - Ganda people of Uganda

Topical song -- “Munya gwerira mungale” -- accompanied by two endongo (eight-stringed lyres [pentatonic]). The two lyres are tuned an octave apart.  “The gekko lizard, which lives in our houses, is a friend of man and should not be harmed. If a single gekko was killed, seven other gekkos would take the case to the chief and win their case.”  (ARLP 33 v 27 A7; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57g from Tape 10)

21.    Lyre - Kipsigis people of Kenya

A love song -- “Bengeria” -- accompanied by a kibugandet (five-stringed lyre [pentatonic]). 

This song is about a  girl named Bengeria. The singer makes the customary hissing sound between verses.  (ARLP 33 v 27 A8; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57h from Tape 10)

22.    Lyre - Kipsigis people of Kenya

A humorous song  -- “Chemirocha” -- accompanied by a chepkong (six-stringed lyre [pentatonic]). The singer, who also is a dancer, is urged by the girls to come and do the leaping dance with them. (ARLP 33 v 27 A9; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57j from Tape 10)

23.    Lyre - Nandi people of Kenya

Praise song -- “Chepchoni marinda” -- accompanied by a kipukandet (six-stringed lyre [pentatonic]). A praise song in which the singer shows his appreciation for his people, chief, and community. (ARLP 33 v 27 A10; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57k from Tape 10)

24.    Lyre - Luo people of Kenya

Praise song -- “Gideon Magak” -- accompanied by a thum (eight-stringed bowl lyre) and gara (leg bells). The singer praises the chief (Gideon Magak) for his public works in the district under his charge. (ARLP 33 v 27 A11; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57l from Tape 10)

25.    Lyre - Ganda people of Uganda

Topical song -- “Abaseveni abada” -- accompanied by an endongo (eight-stringed bowl lyre), a ndingidi (one-stringed bowed lute), and a ntengo (a laced drum). “The soldiers of the Abaseveni, the Seventh King’s African Rifles, are back from war and they have no money left. The ones who stayed behind are better off than they.”

(ARLP 33 v 27 A12; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57m from Tape 11)

26.    Bowed lute (fiddle) - Luo people of Kenya

Praise song -- “Odhiambo Odet” --  accompanied by an orotu (one-stringed bowed lute). “Odhiambo is a wonderful person with eyes so bright he could even see to read in the dark.” (ARLP 33 v 27 B1; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57n from Tape 11)

27.    Bowed lute (fiddle) - Chewa people of Malawi

Humorous song -- “Dzombe rija” -- accompanied by a karigo (one-stringed bowed lute). “Where does that grasshopper of mine sleep? I will not eat until everyone helps me to catch it.” (ARLP 33 v 27 B2; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57o from Tape 11)

28.    Plucked lute - Medje people of northern Democratic Republic of the Congo

Topical song -- “Nenemegyeti” -- accompanied by a nenjenje (two stringed plucked lute). This lute, which has three raised stops is found throughout Central Africa from northern Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Zambezi River. In performance, only one string is fingered; the other is used as a drone. (ARLP 33 v 27 B3; Gallotone GALP 1322, no. 27; Ex. 57p from Tape 11)

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 6. Instruments - Aerophones

1.    Flutes - Ganda people of Uganda

A song for the Kabaka (king of the Ganda people of Uganda) accompanied by three ndere flutes, one cylindrical drum, and three conical drums. This set of ndere notched flutes, with accompanying drums, is one of the many orchestras used at the palace of the Kabaka. The song warns the young Kabaka against going out on Lake Victoria Nyanza in canoes that might easily overturn and drown him. (ARLP 131 Item 16; Columbia SL-213; Ex 79 from Tape 15)

2.    Flutes - Nyamwezi people of Tanzania

Two bamboo flute (nyamulera) tunes played by small boys who herd cattle. The flute player sometimes hums into the flute to produce interesting sound effects.   

(ARLP 33 v6 B2; Decca LF 1171; Ex 80 from Tape 15)

3.   Flutes - Builsa people of Ghana

The Builsa people live in northern Ghana and belong to the Voltaic cluster (see DjeDje West Africa: An Introduction” in Africa: The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music for further discussion). The music of the Builsa belongs to Kasena-Nankani sub-family of the Voltaic cluster. This example includes several flute pieces performed alone and in ensemble with other instruments. (Tape 1015 A1; Ex. 81 from Tape 16)

4.    Flutes - Fon people of Benin (former Dahomey) The voice announcement for this example which indicates that these are the Mpete people is incorrect.

The Fon people established the ancient Dahomey kingdom at Abomey during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. When the country Dahomey regained its independence from the French in 1960, Abomey became an important center of the modern republic. Today the country is now known as Benin. In this example, two mpete wooden flutes play music in praise of royalty in Abomey. The song, sung in archaic Gun, makes allusion to the character of the royal family. In earlier times, the sound from the mpete was used to rally or assemble the children of royalty. (ARLP 69 A4; Vogue Contrepoint MC20-146; Ex. 82 from Tape 16)

5.    Horns - Akan people of Ghana

Although Akan speakers probably occupied their present homeland in central Ghana since the 15th century, the Asante people became the most powerful group among the Akan speakers during the 18th century. Ruled by the Asantehene from the capital at Kumasi, the Asante have a large entourage of court musicians. As symbols of royalty, the ntahera horn are only used at royal occasions. (Tape 1015 A3; Ex 83 from Tape 16)

6.    Horns - Chewa people of Malawi

“Manyanda” is the first movement of the muganda dance with maligenga (horns made of gourds) played by Chewa young men. In many part of Africa gourds are blown as trumpets and used a singing horns. The singing gourds usually have a membrane placed across the small end of the gourd which nasalizes the sound of the voice as the performer sings into the horn through a hole near its pointed end. A set of malipenga horns from Malawi varies from approximately four inches for treble parts to two feet long for those who are singing bass. The effect is remarkably instrumental, in spite of the fact that the players are only singing into their horns. (ARLP 131  Item 17; Columbia SL-213; Ex. 52 from Tape 10)

Tape 7A. Instruments - Idiophones (Lamellophones)

1.    Lamellophone (pentatonic) - Nyoro people of Uganda

This song, entitled “Kyenda ali mugenyi” (The Careful Father), is played on the likembe (lamellophone). The Nyoro are believed to have adopted the likembe from the Nilotic Alur people. (ARLP 33 v 28 A1; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58a from Tape 11)

2.    Lamellophone (pentatonic) - Gogo people of Tanzania

The title of this song is “Maganga kalila zanswelo” (Maganga wishes you luck). Among the Gogo people, the lamellophone is called llimba. The 20 keys on the llimba are made of steel taken from umbrella springs. The title of this song is “Maganga wishes you luck.” (ARLP 33 v 28 A2; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58b from Tape 11)

3.    Lamellophone (pentatonic) - Luba people of Democratic Republic of the Congo

This piece, “Dyibwe dyambule kabanda” (The ant carries a load), is a duet played on two chisanzhi (lamellophones); one chisanzhi has 10 keys while the other has 12 keys. The two instruments are tuned an octave apart. (ARLP 33 v 28 A3; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58c from Tape 11)

4.    Lamellophone (pentatonic) - Alur people of Congo

The title of this song is “Ndiri.” Among the Alur, the lamellophone is called likembe and constructed in various sizes. This piece is a duet played on a natine (treble likembe) and a minu (bass likembe). The title of this piece is “Ndiri” (translation is unknown). (ARLP 33 v 28 A4; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58d from Tape 11)

5.    Lamellophone (pentatonic) - Soga people of Uganda

The title of this song is “Kiriyo” (A woman is wonderful). The piece is played by an ensemble of six budongo (lamellophones). Each budongo is constructed with 12 keys. This set of budongo covers a range of four octaves. (ARLP 33 v 28 A5; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58e from Tape 11)

6.    Lamellophone (hexatonic) - Ndau people of Zimbabwe

This song, entitled “Detyetye kusheka” (To Laugh), is played on the mbira dza waNadu (lamellophone). This lamellophone is constructed with 32 keys, 3 manuals, and a bell resonator.  (ARLP 33 v 28 A6; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58f from Tape 11)

7.    Lamellophone (hexatonic) - Ndau people of Zimbabwe

This song, entitled “Hondoro” (Hondoro, soul) is played on the mbira dza waNadu (lamellophone). This lamellophone is constructed with 32 keys, 3 manuals, and a bell resonator. The melody is based on a 18 beat pattern. One clapping rhythm sounds the pulses that fall on beats 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, while the other sounds the remainder beats 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16. (ARLP 33 v 28 A7; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58g from Tape 11)

8.    Lamellophone (hexatonic) - Ndau people of Zimbabwe

This song, entitled “Meki, ye Meki woye!” (Meki has lost something), is played on a mbira dza waNdau which is constructed with 28 keys, 3 manuals, and bell with external resonator. (ARLP 33 v 28 A8; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58h from Tape 12)

9.    Lamellophone (hexatonic) - Ndau people of Zimbabwe

This song, entitled “Mwadzi itira” (He did it himself), is played on a mbira dza waNdau which is constructed with 27 keys, 3 manuals, and bell with external resonator. (ARLP 33 v 28 A9; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58j from Tape 12)

10.    Lamellophone (hexatonic) - Luba people of Democratic Republic of the Congo

Entitled “Kemai,” this is a duet played on two chisanzhi (lamellophones). For this duet, the same two instruments (see item 3) were retuned to a hexatonic scale. The treble chisanzhi tendo is an octave higher than the bass chisanzhi chinene. Examples 10 and 3 demonstrate that the Luba lamellophones can be tuned to more than one scale. (ARLP 33 v 28 A10; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 58k from Tape 12)

11.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Lala people of Zambia

“Bata wagungu mulundu” played on a kankowele (lamellophone), which is constructed with 11 keys, 2 manuals. (ARLP 33 v 28 B1; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59a from Tape 12)

12.    Lamellophone (heptatonic - Nyamwezi people of Tanzania

“Harusi”  is a wedding tune played on a malimba (lamellophone) that is constructed with 13 keys and 1 manual. (ARLP 33 v 28 B2; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59b from Tape 12)

13.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Venda people of South Africa

“Bidera” is played on a mbira, which is constructed with 24 keys, 2 manuals, and a board resonator. (ARLP 33 v 28 B3; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59c from Tape 12)

14.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Njanja people of Zimbabwe

“Magonde” (song for the chief) is played on a njari dza maNjanja, which is constructed with 27 keys, 2 manuals on a board with an external resonator. (ARLP 33 v 28 B4; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59d from Tape 12)

15.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Karanga people of Zimbabwe

“Gororombe yawakuru” (the Gororombe dance of the elders) played on a njari, which is constructed with 23-29 keys, 2 manuals on a board with an external resonator.  (ARLP 33 v 28 B5; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59e from Tape 12)

16.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Mbunda people

“Sitima senda namoto” (the train goes with fire) played on a kathandi, which is constructed with 14 keys, on 2 manuals that are fan shaped with an external resonator and mirliton. (ARLP 33 v 28 B6; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59f from Tape 12)

17.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Mbunda people

“Tambuka nalikishi” (the mask dance) played on a kathandi, which is constructed with 14 keys, on 2 manuals that are fan shaped with an external resonator and mirliton.  (ARLP 33 v 28 B7; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59g from Tape 12)

18.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Binza people of Congo

Entitled “Muzeze” (Prisoner, dance the muzeze!), this piece is played on an ekembe, which is constructed with 10 keys, one manual that is placed in a box with a sound hole.  (ARLP 33 v 28 B8; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59h from Tape 12)

19.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Medje people of Congo

“Nemangolia” played on a neikembe, which is constructed with 11 keys, one manual in a box with a sound hole. (ARLP 33 v 28 B9; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59j from Tape 12)

20.    Lamellophone (heptatonic) - Medje people of Congo

“Dzoli” played on a neikembe, which is constructed with 11 keys, one manual in a box with a sound hole. (ARLP 33 v 28 B10; Gallotone GALP 1322; Ex. 59k from Tape 12)

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 7B Instruments - Idiophones (Xylophones)

1.    Xylophone (pentatonic) - Tonga people of South Africa

“Ulumbundubundu” - Seed time tune played on a chikorekore (xylophone with 4 keys). This instrument, which consists of four wooden logs placed across the players thighs as he sits on the ground, is played at the time of sowing winter crops in April and May. Once the gardens are planted the notes are discarded and burnt as firewood, new ones are cut and tuned the following year. (ARLP 33 v 31 A1; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60a from Tape 12)

2.    Xylophone (pentatonic) - Nyoro people of Uganda

“Musingasinga yakoro egali” - Dance tune played on a ntara (xylophone with 16 keys). This instrument is played by four men, three on one side, all playing the same melody in three octaves, and the fourth on the opposite side playing a contra-melody. Each part can be distinctly heard in the recording. (ARLP 33 v 31 A2; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60b from Tape 12)

3.    Xylophone (pentatonic) - Ganda people of Uganda

“Nandikulamude” -- Three xylophone players who are members of Royal Bands of the Kabaka of Uganda perform a traditional melody on a madinda (xylophone with 17 keys). The keys for this instrument are placed across two freshly cut banana stalks and held in place laterally by lugs beneath each note and short wands pierced into the stalks to separate individual notes from each other. (ARLP 33 v 31 A3; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60c from Tape 12)

4.    Xylophone (pentatonic) - Dhola people of Uganda

Kwebyalumbe dance tune played on a ndara (xylophone with 13 keys). This xylophone is played at funerals and for other parties by five players together -- three sitting on one side and two on the other. (ARLP 33 v 31 A4; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60d from Tape 12)

5.    Xylophone (pentatonic) - Zande/Bandiya people of Congo

“Kondo natipala bako” - Dance tune for the forefathers played on a kponingbo (xylophone with 9 keys). This instrument is similar to that found in Uganda and is played by three men in distinctive Zande style. The music accompanies ring dances in which the dancers, both men and women, complete rhythmic cycles of steps as they move around in an counter-clockwise direction. (ARLP 33 v 31 A5; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60e from Tape 12)

6.    Xylophone (pentatonic) - Nyanja/Mang’anja people of Malawi

“Mkazi wa mulomo” (the talkative woman). A tune played on a magogodo by two boys aged about 12 years. The instrument had 10 keys whose position on the supports may be changed at will to facilitate the playing of different melodies. (ARLP 33 v 31 A6; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60f from Tape 13)

7.    Xylophone (hexatonic) - Kanyoka people of Democratic Republic of the Congo

“Kalubambu tambo abibongo” - Ilunga vensa dance tune with two xylophones (marimba), slit drum, 3 membranophones, and rattles. The two marimba xylophones were called male and female, the female and not the male being the lower pitched of the two. The male had 13 keys and the female had 9. The female marimba was assembled left-handed with bass notes on the right. (ARLP 33 v 31 A7; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60g from Tape 13)

8.    Xylophone (hexatonic) - Loza people of Zambia

“Mulala karimukwa panga” (Mulala stole money) - Siamboka dance song played on a silimba (xylophone with 9 keys). This xylophone is built on a rough frame with crossed legs at each end, raising it about 3 feet above the ground. Each key as has a separate resonator with open mirliton buzzers. (ARLP 33 v 31 A8; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60h from Tape 13)

9.    Xylophone (hexatonic) - Luba people of Democratic Republic of the Congo

“Mutomboko” and “Luwendo” - Two ceremonial tunes for a chief played by six men on two silimba xylophones with drums. The silimba xylophone of the Luba, like the marimba of the Kanyoka, are also called male and female, the male being madimbo ntendo (14 keys) and the female, madimbo ntako, (9 keys).  (ARLP 33 v 31 A9; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 60j from Tape 13)

Chopi (Notes from The Music of Africa Series No. 31. Musical Instruments 5. Xylophones by Hugh Tracey.) “The next six items are examples of compositions by two Chopi master musicians, Komukomu we Simbi and Katini we Nyamombe. Their clear melodic orchestral accompaniments, control of their village timbila ensembles, and artistic integrity are all of a high order and perhaps unexcelled in Africa. Both men are now dead but, maintaining this centuries old art, have greatly enriched the cultural life of the Chopi and through their recordings have proclaimed the potential of this aspect of African music. The items featured are all early examples of their work and were with one exception recorded with a small orchestra of six players only, in a studio. Item 12 (ARLP 33 v 31 B3) is a village recording revealing the surge of sound produced by a full village xylophone orchestra of 15 players in the woods of the countryside in Zavala, Mozambique.” Further details about Chopi music and musicians can be found in a book by Hugh Tracey, Chopi Musicians, Their Music, Poetry and Instruments (1948). (ARLP 33 v 31 B3)

10.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Chopi people of Mozambique

“Lawanani michanga sika timbila tamakono” (Come together and make music for the new year) The mzeno movement, the Great Song, of the ngodo orchestral dance of Banguza played on an ensemble of timbila xylophones. The mzeno movement, which by tradition is expected to display the composer’s best work of the year, is featured towards the end of the ngodo which may have as many as fourteen or fifteen movements. During the movement, the dancers who also do the singing gradually approach the xylophones and at the given signal declaim the poetry of their composer leader, verse by verse, to the muted accompaniment of the xylophones. (ARLP 33 v 31 B1; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61a from Tape 13) 

11.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Chopi people of Mozambique

Demonstration of the left and right hand melodies of the ostinato (time line melody) or subject upon which the previous item was based. The art of Chopi xylophone playing depends greatly upon the ability of the player to interweave the two melodies of the right and left hand into a complete whole. By holding first the left and then the right hand beater while the other continued to play, the melody of either hand can be distinguished. The ostinato (time line) melody forms the subject of Chopi compositions against which other themes and counter-melodies are performed. (ARLP 33 v 31 B2; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61b from Tape 13) 

12.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Chopi people of Mozambique

“Msitso we mbidi” second orchestral introduction with 5 timbila xylophones. A ngodo or xylophone dance may have up to four or five of such msitso or introductions played before the entry of the dancers. (ARLP 33 v 31 B3; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61c from Tape 13)  

13.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Chopi people of Mozambique

“Chibudu” (an interlude). Sometimes between movements of the ngodo, when the dancers have been dancing vigorously, the xylophone orchestra will play over a melody casually while waiting for the dancers to recover their breath. Such interludes are usually performed with one beater only, though as the music progresses, as in this case, more and more players respond to the mood and play with both hands. (ARLP 33 v 31 B4; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61d from Tape 13)

14.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Chopi people of Mozambique

“Msitso wokhata” - first orchestral introduction of the ngodo played by 5 timbila performers. An introduction followed by a short improvisatory section by the composer. (ARLP 33 v 31 B5; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61e from Tape 13)

15.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Chopi people of Mozambique

“Hinganyenigisa masingita” (Listen to the mysteries!) Mzeno movement of the ngodo orchestral performed by 5 timbila players. The mzeno is the climax of one of the many complete ngodo composed by a musician. Unaided by any form of written music, Chopi musicians regularly compose new songs and melodies for their dances until, as with Katini, at least a hundred or more compositions stand to their credit, the older ones being discarded and forgotten as they are replaced by the new. (ARLP 33 v 31 B6; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61f from Tape 13)

16.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Tswa people of Mozambique

“Nzashaniseka” (I am suffering.) Solo on the muhambi treble xylophone. This piece is the treble part of what would normally be a three xylophone ensemble, the other two instruments being binga the alto, and chimbingani, the bass. The Tswa xylophones are collectively called marimba. (ARLP 33 v 31 B7; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61g from Tape 13)

17.    Xylophone (heptatonic) - Lunda people of Democratic Republic of the Congo

“Kachancha” - Maza dance tune on three dujimba xylophones with drums. The three instruments are: dujimba dwasa (7 keys), dujimba dwapakachi (8 keys), and dujimba dwamukuma (9 keys). Unlike most African xylophones where the keys are laid out in order from treble to bass, the keys on these instruments are laid out in an irregular order, presumably to facilitate playing. (ARLP 33 v 31 B8; Gallotone GALP 1326 no. 31; Ex. 61h from Tape 13)

Ethnomu C136A/C236A

Music of Africa

Tape 8 Instruments - Membranophones

1.    Drum Rhythms - Haya people of Tanzania

“Enkoito” -- Performance on a set of five enkoito drums. The set includes mpero (the smallest drum); ntimbo (the starter or the drum on which the basic rhythm [timeline] is kept); a pair of nyikirizo (which beats the main pulses, similar in size to the ntimbo); and nyaminyeko (the bass drum) upon which free rhythms are played. (ARLP 33 v 29 A1; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 62a from Tape 14)

2.    Drum Rhythms - Luba people of Democratic Republic of the Congo

“Mambala” performed on five goblet shaped drums, one double bell, one basket rattle, and a whistle. According to Hugh Tracey (the person who collected the music), Luba musicians, singers, and dancers are among the most lively performers in the whole of the Congo. (ARLP 33 v 29 A2; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 62b from Tape 14)

3.    Drum Rhythms - Lala people of Zambia

“Fwanda-fwanda” -- three drums, stick, whistles, and rattle. Each of the three drums can be heard separately with its distinctive tone; the akanono, the cimbulunge, and the fwanda-fwanda. The dancers provide a shrill accompaniment with tin whistles. (ARLP 33 v 29 A3; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 62c from Tape 14)

4.    Drum Rhythms - Nyamwezi people of Tanzania

“Manyanga” -- three drummers. Two laced drums provided the rhythmic bass and a goblet shaped drum the counter rhythm. The different tones on this drum were made by varying the stroke; the sharp sound was produced by striking the membrane with loosely fingers; the muted sound by closed hand; and the raised note by pressure on the membrane by one elbow. (ARLP 33 v 29 A4; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 62d from Tape 14)

5.    Drum Rhythms - Sena/Tonga people of Zimbabwe

“Ngororombe” -- performed on four drums: mutumba (open conical); jenje (open, four legged); miningo or karipi-karipi (open conical); and usindi (closed). The leader played both mutumba and jenje pressing the membrane of one drum with his heel to raise and lower its pitch, clearly heard in this recording. The other two were played with sticks. (ARLP 33 v 29 A5; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 62e from Tape 14)

6.    Drum Rhythms - Tutsi people of Rwanda (Part 1)

Royal Drums of the Omwami of Rwanda. The royal drummers play two of their many drum patterns: zirasuka and ikirushya. All four drums were laced drums: nyahua, ndibushuba, ntajishika, and warugurubibi, which is the light sounding time keeper. (ARLP 33 v 29 A6; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 62f from Tape 14)

7.    Drum Rhythms - Tutsi people of Rwanda (Part 2)

Royal Drums of the Omwami of Rwanda. The royal drummers play two of their many drum patterns: zirasuka and ikirushya. All four drums were laced drums: nyahua, ndibushuba, ntajishika, and warugurubibi, which is the light sounding time keeper. (ARLP 33 v 29 A7; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 62g from Tape 14)

8.    Drum Message - Kanyoka people of Democratic Republic of the Congo

Drum message, calling people to come -- performed on a chondo slit drum. When this example was recorded by Hugh Tracey, he asked the drummer to speak the words of his message in order to demonstrate the tone sequences. Drummers do not normally do this. So in a normal performance, the sequence of the message would not be broken up into phrases as in this recording. The chondo was a small portable wooden slit drum hollowed out through a slit with a rectangular hole at either end. The drum was placed on an insulating ring made of bound grass. The drum is not used exclusively for messages but for dances also.  (ARLP 33 v 29 B1; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63a from Tape 14)

9.    Drum Signals - Mangbele of the Congo

The drum signals are divided into three parts: a) a call to fight; b) the chief summons his people, and c) to announce a death. Drum signals, like military bugle calls, are pre-arranged rhythmic phrases which, through association, convey a general but not a particular piece of information. Thus these drum signals would not tell the distant hearers whom they were to fight or who had died but only the general indication of fighting or death. Drum messages on the other hand would be able to convey information in considerable detail through the use of drum message synonyms the tones of which are directly related to the tones of the spoken words. (ARLP 33 v 29 B2; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63b from Tape 14)

10.    Drum Signals - Nyoro people of Uganda

“Kwebembera omukama” -- drums for a royal occasion. Three small goblet shaped drums are held under the arm and have a water lizard membrane which gives a bright, sharp tone when played with the hands. This particular pattern was used to “drum” the Mukama of Bunyoro when he walked from his house to the Council Chamber. (ARLP 33 v 29 B3; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63c from Tape 14)

11.    Drums (tuned) - Zaramo people of Tanzania

“Mitamba yalagala kumchuzi” performed by Zaramo men at Dar es Salaam. These drums, made from mukongo wood, were carefully tuned by wetting and heating before a fire. The piece here is a demonstration of the introduction to the madogoli dance. (ARLP 33 v 29 B4; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63d from Tape 14)

12.    Drums (tuned) - Ganda people of Uganda

“Kyuma” performed by entenga royal drummers at Kampala on a set of 15 tunes drums. These conical laced drums are tuned to two octaves of a pentatonic scale with three additional bass drums. Four of the six drummers play three drums each and the bass drum players play two and one drum, respectively. The drummers play a number of tunes and it appears that the technique is similar to that employed in the playing of the Ganda madinda and amadinda xylophones. The players first set the rhythm by beating their light drum sticks on the sides of the drums. (ARLP 33 v 29 B5; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63e from Tape 14)

13.    Drums (tuned) - Manganja people of Malawi

“Likhuba” performed by three drummers on 9 tuned drums. The leader plays the top five and sometime the sixth drum as well. One man played nos. 6 and 7 and two players the two bass drums nos. 8 and 9. The names of the drums from treble to bass are gogogo, four usindi drums, nduisi, usonjo, ntewe, and ngunte. All the drums were tuned with castor oil wax; the wax is removed from the membranes immediately after playing as it was said to spoil the membrane if left on too long. (ARLP 33 v 29 B6; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63f from Tape 14)

14.    Drum Dances - Yogo people of the Congo

“Congo Bereji” -- ebi dance by Yogo men and women performed on five slit drums, two laced drums, double bell, and small bells. Of the five slit drums three were cylindrical, carved from whole logs of wood, and two were pod shaped. A chief led the dance song. (ARLP 33 v 29 B7; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63g from Tape 14)

15.    Drum Dances - Medje people of the Congo

“Nadu” -- a marriage dance by Medje men performed on 9 drums, metal bell, basket rattles and hand bell. Four of the drums were laced membrane drums and the others were five slit drums of various sizes. Names for the drums are as follows: nabiba (laced drums); nedundu (bass slit drum); nekbokbo (small slit drums); emandru (pod shaped slit drums); nengbongbo (double metal bell); and nezeza (basket rattles). (ARLP 33 v 29 B8; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63h from Tape 14)

16.    Drum Dances - Buudu people of the Congo

“Yando” performed on 3 slit drums, 2 conical drums, hand bells, basket rattles, and ivory horn. The conical drums had membranes made from elephant ears. (ARLP 33 v 29 B9; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63j from Tape 14)

17.    Drum Dances - Nyamwezi people of Tanzania

“Manyanga” -- demonstration of the sound of the acrobatic step dance that accompanies Ex. 4; see above. (ARLP 33 v 29 B10; Gallophone GALP 1324; Ex. 63k from Tape 14)